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APR  14  1914 


FORMAL   ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 
AS  A  DISCIPLINE 


THOMAS  H.  BRIGGS 


MNJVEnSJTY 

Or  / 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIRE- 
MENTS FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 
IN  THE  FACULTY  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


Reprinted  from  Teachers  College  Record 
September  1913,  pp.  1  to  93 


PUBLISHED    BY 

S^rarl^pra  CHolUgr,  CHolumbia  ^nititrfitty 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

1913 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/formalenglishgraOObrigrich 


FORMAL  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 
AS  A  DISCIPLINE 


By 
THOMAS  H.  BRIGGS 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIRE- 
MENTS FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OP  PHILOSOPHIT, 
IN  THE  FACULTY  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


Reprinted  from  Teachers  College  Record 
September  1913,  pp.  1  to  93 


PUBLISHED    BY 

©rarljfra  (ttolUg^.  ©olttmWa  Hniurrei^ 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

1913 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

Acknowledgment  is  gratefully  made  to  Superintendent  E.  C. 
Broome,  of  Mt.  Vernon,  New  York,  to  Professor  F.  G.  Bonser, 
in  charge  of  the  Speyer  School,  New  York  City,  and  to  their 
teachers  for  affording  me  opportunities  to  try  out  the  tests  used 
in  this  experiment;  to  Principal  Henry  Carr  Pearson,  Miss 
Lillian  Rogers,  and  Miss  Caroline  W.  Hotchkiss,  of  the  Horace 
Mann  School,  New  York  City,  for  making  possible  the  conditions 
under  which  the  major  part  of  the  experiment  was  conducted; 
to  Superintendents  DeWitt  Elwood,  A.  W,  Gross,  A.  P.  Johnson, 
G.  P.  Randle,  and  H.  B.  Wilson,  all  of  Illinois,  and  their  teachers ; 
to  the  authorities  and  teachers  at  the  Eastern  Illinois  State  Nor- 
mal School  and  at  the  Indiana  State  Normal  School  for  the 
same  contribution  to  the  remaining  part  of  the  experiment;  to 
Dr.  C.  H.  Bean,  Professor  E.  E.  Lewis,  and  Mr.  H.  O.  Rugg, 
for  administering  for  me  certain  tests;  and  to  Professor  F.  T. 
Baker  and  Professor  E.  L.  Thorndike,  of  Teachers  College,  for 
aiding  me  constantly  in  various  ways.  The  extent  of  my 
obligation  to  Professor  Thorndike  can  be  appreciated  only  by 
those  who  have  received  from  him  similar  stimulus,  guidance, 
and  correction,  t.  h.  b. 


282309 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 
PART  I 

PAGE 

Historical  Sketch  of  Grammas  and  the  Teaching  of  Graj^imar.  .  i 

PART  II 

General  Claims  for  Grammar 7 

Formal  Grammar  Defined   7 

General  Claims  for  Formal  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 9 

Specific  Claims  lor  Formal  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 11 

Common  Fallacies  in  the  Argument 12 

Lack  of  Experimental  Evidence 14 

Experiment   Devised    15 

The  Tests    iS 

Scoring    45 

PART  III 

Conditions  Secured  at  the  Horace  Mann  School 50 

The  Children  and  School  Conditions 5° 

Other   Conditions    55 

Attempt  to  Secure  a  General  Ideal S6 

Administration  of  the  Tests 57 

Results    58 

PART  IV 

Tests  in   Other  Schools 7^ 

Results    74 

Summary  9^ 

Bibuography    93 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD 


Vol.  XIV  SEPTEMBER,  1913  No.  4 


FORMAL  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  AS  A  DISCIPLINE 

PART  I 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  GRAMMAR  AND  THE 
TEACHING  OF  GRAMMAR 

The  grammar  that  is  commonly  taught  in  elementary  schools 
to-day  has  a  long  and  unbroken  descent  to  us  from  its  origin  in 
Greece.  Though  in  every  age  called  grammar,  it  has  not  always 
had  the  same  content  and  purposes ;  both  indeed  have  changed 
so  often  that  definiteness  demands  a  careful  explanation  of  the 
term  whenever  it  is  used.  They  will  be  better  understood,  too, 
after  an  acquaintance  with  the  development  of  the  subject  in 
the  school  curricula,  a  full  history  of  which  is  yet  to  be  written.^ 

The  origin  of  grammar  was  in  philosophy,  which  still  divides 
the  subject  with  the  elementary  school;  but  so  slowly  were  even 
the  fundamental  facts  discovered  that  Aristotle  in  his  wisdom 
knew  nothing  of  adverbs  and  tenses  as  such.  Already  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  there  existed,  however,  two  "  schools  " — 
the  Analogists,  who  maintained  that  there  was  between  word 
and  idea  a  mysterious  union  which  made  impossible  any  excep- 
tions to  grammatical  rules ;  and  the  Anomalists,  who  denied 
general  rules  of  any  kind  unless  they  were  justified  by  custom. 
After  a  long  contest  the  former  school,  as  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  won  the  field,  which  it  maintained  chiefly  by  tradition  for 

*  Most  of  the  facts  in  the  following  sketch  were  drawn  from  the  article 
on  Grammar  by  Sayce  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  Abelson's  The 
Seven  Liberal  Arts,  Mullinger's  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great,  Barbour's 
The  Teaching  of  English  Grammar,  Monroe's  A  Text-Book  in  the 
History  of  Education,  and  Carpenter,  Baker  &  Scott's  The  Teaching 
of  English. 
251]  I 


2  Teachers  College  Record  [252 

many  centuries — indeed,  it  has  not  even  yet  been  entirely  driven 
forth. 

But  in  Greece,  grammar  acquired  a  large  meaning  and  a 
practical  value.  As  one  of  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts  it  included 
first  and  last  even  more  than  we  understand  now  by  language  and 
literature.  In  its  narrow  sense  it  was  used  practically  by  the 
Sophists  to  aid  them  in  their  rhetorical  contests ;  in  its  compre- 
hensive sense,  by  all  Greek  scholars  to  instruct  the  youth  in 
culture. 

As  a  practical  study  grammar  was  introduced  into  Rome 
primarily  that  scholars  might  learn  the  Greek  language  and 
participate  in  the  literature  which  it  had  been  used  to  express. 
This  practical  value,  prominent  throughout  the  Hellenistic  period 
(from  200  B.C.  to  100  A.D.),  was  emphasized  by  Dionysius  Thrax, 
who  in  the  first  prechristian  century  wrote  for  Romans  his  Greek 
grammar.  This  became  the  basis  of  several  grammars  of  the 
Latin  tongue;  the  adapting  authors,  anticipating  their  English 
descendants,  not  only  misunderstood  and  mistranslated  their 
originals,  but  failed  to  realize  that  the  grammar  of  one  language 
is  not  identical  with  that  of  another.  Partly  as  a  result  of  this 
artificiality,  grammar  must  have  readily  shared  in  the  degenera- 
tion of  all  intellectual  life  after  the  time  of  Suetonius,  retaining 
only  its  form.    This,  however,  was  assiduously  studied. 

At  first  the  Christian  Church  had  no  interest  in  grammar, 
rejecting  it  along  with  everything  else  pagan.  But  after  the 
church  felt  itself  secure,  especially  as  it  recognized  the  need 
of  organized  linguistic  facts  for  the  priests  who  had  to  learn 
to  read  the  Scriptures,  this  hostility  slowly  dissipated.  Then 
began  the  general  use  of  two  text-books,  the  "  Ars  Grammatica 
Minor,"  through  which  Donatus  in  the  fourth  century  presented 
the  organization  of  syntax  that  the  systematizing  Roman  mind 
had  developed,  and  the  "  Institutio  de  Arte,"  through  which 
Priscian  a  century  later  attempted  to  put  the  grammar  of  Latin 
on  the  same  scientific  footing  as  that  of  Greek. 

There  was  no  such  agreement,  however,  regarding  content  as 
there  was  regarding  texts.  Cassiodorus  considered  grammar 
to  embrace  literature;  Isidore  of  Seville  called  it  "  et  origo  et 
fundamentum  liberalium  literarum " ;  and  Rabanus  Maurus 
repeated  the  statement  adding  that  it  was  "  scientia  interpretandi 


253]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  3 

poetas  atque  historicos  et  recte  scribendi  loquendique  ratio." 
But  there  is  evidence  that  these  ideals  were  not  followed  in 
general  practice.  After  Gregory  the  Great  the  original  interpre- 
tation of  the  study  of  grammar,  according  to  Mullinger,  dwindled 
to  nothing  more  than  a  technical  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
language.  This  was  mastered  primarily  as  a  means  to  acquire 
the  universal  language  of  scholars,  Alcuin,  among  others, 
scrupulously  abstains  from  dwelling  on  literature  as  an  aspect 
of  grammar.  In  his  "  Disputatio  "  we  find  how  formal  a  matter 
he  considers  it.  "  Grammar  is  the  science  of  letters,  the  guardian 
of  language  and  of  correct  style.  It  is  founded  on  nature,  reason, 
authority,  and  usage.  It  is  divided  into  26  '  species ' ;  to  wit, 
words,  letters,  syllables,  clauses,  sayings,  speeches,  definitions, 
feet,  accents,  punctuations,  critical  works,  orthographies,  analo- 
gies, etymologies,  glosses,  differences,  barbarisms,  solecisms, 
faults,  metaplasms,  schemata,  tropes,  prose,  meter,  fables,  and 
histories." 

He  writes,  further,  that  the  syllable  has  "  three  accents — the 
acute,  the  grave,  and  the  circumflex ;  two  breathings,  hard  and 
soft;  quantity,  two  short  syllables  being  equivalent  to  one  long; 
and  number,  according  to  the  letters  of  which  it  is  composed." 
We  get  even  a  clearer  idea  of  the  formalism  involved  when  we 
realize  that  Alcuin,  who  was  inaccurate  even  in  the  small  Greek 
he  did  know,  was  discussing  not  Greek  grammar,  but  grammar. 

During  the  period  of  Scholasticism  there  was  a  shrinking  of 
the  content  of  grammar;  and  at  the  universities  there  developed 
an  exaggeration  of  the  disposition  to  reason  about  details, 
a  disposition  that  has  always,  early  and  late,  shown 
itself.  The  chief  text  after  1199  was  Alexander  de 
Villedieu's  "  Doctrinale,"  less  than  a  fifth  of  which  was  devoted 
to  syntax.  With  this  book  as  a  text  Scholasticism,  caring  little 
for  the  validity  of  grammar,  taught  it  as  a  deductive  science; 
and  in  the  monasteries  used  it  as  a  discipline  or  occupation  for 
idle  time.  There  is  small  wonder,  then,  that  the  Humanists  in 
the  fifteenth  centuiy  directed  their  first  attack  against  the 
"  Doctrinale."  But  when  the  spirit  went  from  their  movement 
the  Humanists  incorporated  much  of  the  book  into  their  own 
texts.  Within  two  generations  there  had  been  another  change 
from  substance  back  again  to  form. 


4  Teacliers  College  Record  [254 

But  in  all  these  centuries,  however  much  had  been  taken  out 
of  the  content  of  grammar,  there  was  a  real  need  for  the 
essentials  of  the  subject  as  a  means  of  acquiring  the  universal 
language  of  scholarship.  Even  in  the  seventeenth  century 
Comenius  wrote,^  "  I  presume  that  no  one  can  raise  any  objection 
to  my  placing  [Latin]  grammar  first,  since  it  is  the  key  of  all 
knowledge."  There  was  a  disposition,  however,  to  doubt  even 
that  fact.  Locke^  somewhat  later  declared,  "  I  would  fain  have 
anyone  name  to  me  that  Tongue,  that  anyone  can  learn,  or  speak 
as  he  should  do,  by  the  rules  of  Grammar.  Languages  were 
made  not  by  Rules  or  Art,  but  by  Accident,  and  the  Common 
Use  of  the  People."  And  whether  Locke  was  right  or  not,  the 
chief  reason  for  the  study  of  Latin  grammar  by  English  people 
passed  when  the  language  of  scholarship  became  the  vernacular. 

The  first  so-called  English  grammar  was  the  Introduction, 
written  by  John  Colet  about  1542,  to  Lily's  "  Latin  Grammar." 
The  whole  book  was  by  royal  command  taught  throughout  the 
realm  and  thus  became  the  standard  of  grammatical  reference 
for  two  hundred  years.  This  introduction  to  King  Henry's 
Grammar  and  its  successors  "  were  not  properly  English  gram- 
mars at  all ;  they  were  translations  of  the  Latin  accidence  and 
were  designed  to  aid  the  pupil  in  the  acquisition  of  Latin." 
The  appearance  of  these  books,  based  on  a  belief  that  the 
study  of  Latin  did  not  give  a  ready  and  effective  command  of 
the  mother  tongue,  presaged  good ;  but  partly  because  of  the 
general  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  the  schools,  partly  because 
authors  and  masters  alike  were  "  accustomed  to  mechanical 
methods  of  dealing  with  facts  of  a  dead  language,  known  to 
them  almost  entirely  in  its  somewhat  artificial  literary  form," 
the  grammar  was  English  in  name  only.  With  a  complex 
organization,  almost  without  exception  on  the  skeleton  of 
orthography,  etymology,  syntax,  and  prosody,  these  books 
through  an  attempt  to  apply  the  rules  of  a  highly  inflected 
language  to  English  were  absurdly  artificial.  Blinded  themselves 
to  the  genius  of  the  English  language,  the  authors  established 
a  tradition  which  has  continued  to  blind  the  eyes  of  schoolmen 
even  to  the  present  day.     It  was  bad  enough  for  the  authors  to 


'Great  Didactic,  Chap.  XXX. 

•Thoughts   Concerning  Education,   Sec.    168. 


^SS]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Disciplnie  5 

believe  that  the  only  sure  means  of  acquiring  the  art  of  speaking 
and  writing  correctly  was  through  the  memorizing  of  formal 
grammatical  rules ;  it  was  far  worse  that  they  presented  rules 
derived  from  the  facts  of  another  language  and  applicable  with 
entire  truth  only  to  it.  The  transfer  of  grammar  from  Latin 
to  English,  like  its  transfer  from  Greek  to  Latin,  carried  over 
much  that  was  untrue  and  hence  wasteful  in  the  schools. 

The  authors  of  texts  nearly  all  agreed  in  calling  grammar  an 
art;  they  presented,  however,  rules  to  be  committed,  sentences 
to  be  parsed  or  analyzed,  and  faulty  diction  to  be  corrected. 
Their  ideal  was  that  children,  for  by  this  time  the  subject  had 
been  transferred  gradually  from  philosophers  to  children,  should 
understand  the  syntactical  laws  of  the  language  and  should 
acquire  skill  in  logical  analysis.  Holding  this  ideal  Lindley 
Murray  in  1795  published  a  grammar  which  on  account  of  its 
relative  simplicity  became  the  most  popular  text  for  many  years. 
In  1823  Kirkham  further  simplified  and  adapted  the  subject 
for  children  in  his  "  English  Grammar  in  Familiar  Lectures." 
It  was  about  this  time  that  English  grammar  took  its  place  along- 
side Latin  grammar  as  a  common  study  in  the  elementary  school. 
This  book  had  the  practical  advantage  of  demanding  the 
immediate  application  of  rules  to  sentences,  and  it  also  presented 
a  new  Systematic  Order  of  Parsing,  which,  however  economical 
of  the  teachers'  time,  fixed  a  deadening  outline  on  recitations 
for  two  generations.  A  further  advance  was  proposed  in  the 
"  English  Analysis,"  by  Green,  published  in  1847.  Green  in  his 
advocacy  of  the  analysis  of  whole  sentences  and  also  sentence 
building  may  be  termed  the  progenitor  of  the  modern  idea  of 
discipline  through  grammar  and  of  language  books.  One  may 
get  a  good  idea  of  the  severity  of  the  discipline  that  he  demanded 
by  examining  his  distinction  between  subject  and  predicate 
attribute. 

From  this  time  forward  almost  every  phase  of  grammar  can 
be  found  in  the  rapidly  multiplying  texts,  but  three  lines  of 
development  are  fairly  distinct.  The  first  was  logical  and  meta- 
physical, drawing  its  strength  largely  from  the  complexity  of 
the  subject  and  the  interest  that  philosophers  have  always 
evinced  in  it.  The  authors  attempted  to  present  an  adult, 
scholarly  interest  to  children.    The  second  was  historical.    With 


6  Teachers  College  Record  [256 

the  increased  knowledge  of  comparative  linguistics  there  was  a 
demand  from  scholarship  for  greater  historical  accuracy  in 
the  treatment  of  grammar  in  school  texts;  Goold  Brown,  for 
instance,  thought  Kirkham  very  reprehensible  because  he  con- 
sidered words  "  without  any  regard  to  their  ancient  construction 
and  application."  The  third  line  continued  the  old  tradition  of 
grammar  as  a  deductive  science,  presenting  a  definition  followed 
by  examples  and  an  exercise.  Of  this  type  the  "  Essentials  of 
English  Grammar  "  by  Whitney  is  the  most  conspicuous. 

The  text-books  in  current  use  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
two  classes:  the  first  professes  to  apply  traditional  grammar 
practically  to  language;  the  second,  following  the  laboratory 
practice  of  other  subjects,  has  made  grammar  an  inductive 
science.  The  old  yields  slowly.  In  the  books  of  the  first  class 
many  details  persist  by  the  sole  authority  of  tradition;  in  those 
of  the  second,  they  are  justified,  openly  or  implicitly,  as  afford- 
ing a  general  discipline  of  the  mental  powers.  This  theory  has 
gained  adherence  in  proportion  to  the  need  felt  for  justifying 
existing  practice. 

This  sketch  has  attempted  to  show  that  modem  grammar 
was  born  of  philosophy  and  still  is  held  in  close  relationship 
to  it;  that  recurrently  there  have  arisen  new  conditions  which 
demand  a  modification  of  the  purpose  and  content  of  the  subject; 
that  with  every  change  tradition  has  perpetuated  details  which 
had  lost  much  or  all  of  their  justification ;  and  that  when  old 
reasons  have  faded  there  is  a  tendency  to  invent  new  ones  to 
justify  practice.  The  purpose  of  the  following  study  is  to 
ascertain,  so  far  as  possible,  if  the  claims  that  formal  grammar 
is  an  effective  discipline  are  sound. 


PART  II 

GENERAL  CLAIMS  FOR  GRAMMAR 

The  claims  for  modern  English  grammar  to  a  place  in  the 
elementary  school  curriculum  have  been  well  formulated  by 
Hoyt.^  He  found  after  "  a  survey  of  current  pedagogical 
literature  and  a  canvas  of  the  opinions  of  a  number  of  teachers 
of  grammar,"  that  "  there  is  a  remarkable  consensus  of  opinion 
as  to  the  object  of  teaching  grammar,  and  consequently  in  the 
arguments  advanced  to  justify  its  being  taught." 

"  It  is  asserted,"  Hoyt  records,  "  that  grammar — 

(i)  disciplines  the  mind; 

(2)  prepares  for  the  study  of  other  languages; 

(3)  gives  command  of  an  indispensable  terminology; 

(4)  enables  one  to  use  better  English ; 

(5)  aids  in  the  interpretation  of  literature." 

A   further  investigation,  especially  of  publications  since   1906, 
reveals  no  further  claims. 

Formal  Grammar  Defined 

It  is  obvious  that  the  first  of  these  claims  concerns  formal 
grammar,  by  which  is  meant  grammar  highly  organized  and 
taught  as  a  strict  science,  chiefly  for  its  own  sake  or  as  a  dis- 
cipline for  the  mind.  Particular  attention  may  or  may  not  be 
paid  to  the  elements  that  function  in  the  interpretation  of 
literature  or  in  expression  through  language.  It  is  certain  to 
introduce  many  elements  that  have  no  such  functional  value. 
Indeed,  in  the  strictest  sense  the  worth  of  any  fact  in  formal 
grammar  is  determined  by  its  function  in  a  logical  scheme  rather 
than  by  any  significance  in  the  uses  of  life.  This  distinction 
between  formal  and  functional  grammar  should  be  carefully 
made    and  kept   in   mind,    for   a   failure  to   discriminate   here 

^The    Place    of    Grammar    in    the    Elementary    School    Curriculum, 
Teachers  College  Record,  November,  1906. 
257]  7 


Teachers  College  Record  [258 

beclouds  the  issue  and  frequently  results  in  needless  controversy 
over  the  value  of  grammar  as  a  school  subject.  Holmes,  in  the 
leaflet  of  The  New  England  Association  of  Teachers  of  English 
for  March,  191 3,  seems  to  have  in  mind  a  disciplinary  grammar,'' 
but  his  whole  argument  is  for  the  elements  that  contribute 
directly  to  conservative  correctness,  the  acquiring  of  a  foreign 
language,  and  effective  composition.  Brown,  likewise,  in  The 
English  Journal^  makes  his  third  topic  "  grammar  as  a  disciplin- 
ary study."  But  under  this  head  he  argues  only  that  many  of 
our  school  texts  in  grammar  contain  unscientific  conflicts  of 
statement  or  avoidable  inconsistencies  of  grouping.  The  fact 
that  a  functional  type  of  grammar  may  be  highly  effective  in 
schools  does  not  warrant  the  highly  formal  type,  neither  alone 
nor  in  combination  with  immediately  practical  elements. 

Almost  everywhere  in  pedagogical  literature  emphasis  is  laid 
on  the  claim  that  grammar  "  disciplines  the  mind."  Even 
authors  who  believe  that  less  time  should  be  given  in  the 
elementary  schools  to  grammar  as  a  science,*  assert  that  the 
most  important  of  the  functions  of  grammar  is  undoubtedly  a 
training  in  thought.  Many  writers  advance  this  claim  as  the 
only  one  of  great  value ;  for  example,  the  Committee  of  Ten' 
asserts  that  "  the  study  of  formal  grammar  is  valuable  as 
training  in  thought,  but  has  only  an  indirect  bearing  on  the 
art  of  writing  and  speaking " ;  and  Gowdy^  writes,  "  The 
purpose  of  language  books  and  rhetorics  is  to  give  practical  help 
in  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly  and  effectively. 
Grammar,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  science.  It  is  pre-eminently  a 
disciplinary  study."  It  is  notable  that  in  her  revised  edition 
(1909)  Gowdy  omits  this  statement,  but  retains  the  identical 
plan  and  purpose  of  her  book.  Buck,^  while  arguing  that  school 
texts  in  grammar  are  frequently  unscientific,  frankly  says,  "  We 
know  that  the  study  of  English  grammar  has  long  since  ceased 
to  justify  itself  as  a  practical  art." 


'  He  says,  inter  alia,  that  grammar  "  shall  parallel  and  stimulate  the 
development  of  the  thinking  processes."     Page  4. 

*  February,  1913. 

*E.g.,  Carpenter,  Baker  &  Scott,  The  Teaching  of  English,  p.  146. 
(1903-) 

'Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  p.  89.     (1893.) 

'English  Grammar,  p.  iv.     (1901.) 

''School  Review,  XVII,  29-30. 


259]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  9 

General  Claims  for  Formal  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 

Barbour®  declares  that  grammar  "  has  no  superior  in  the 
school  curriculum,  and  no  substitute  in  the  school  curriculum, 
as  a  discipline  of  the  logical  faculties."  Chubb/  although  an 
advocate  of  functional  rather  than  of  formal  grammar,  thinks 
that  English  grammar  is  superior  to  that  of  Latin  and  Greek 
because  "reason  replaces  memory;  thought-evidence,  the 
sense  evidence  of  inflection Hence  its  superior  disciplin- 
ary value,  save  in  the  matter  of  mere  memorizing."  Woodward^  ° 
is  another  who  thinks  that  as  a  discipline  English  grammar  is 
superior  to  the  classics.  And  Hinsdale^^  compares  the  disciplin- 
ary value  of  grammar  with  that  of  the  other  sciences  in  the 
school  curricula. 

Laurie^ ^  repeatedly  voices  the  disciplinary  claim.  "  I  will  now 
conclude,"  he  writes,  "  that  language,  as  formal,  is  the  most 
effective  and  universal  of  all  pure  disciplines  possible  in  the 
school.  .  .  ."^^  And  further^*  he  declares  that  by  formal  grammar 
we  "  strengthen  reason  for  all  particular  exercises  of  whatever 
kind,"  and  even  acquire  a  "  moral  discipline."^^  One  more 
quotation^®  from  Laurie  clearly  presents  the  claim  for  grammar 
as  a  disciplinary  means: 

"  The  occupation  of  the  intelligence  with  the  abstract  is,  as 
I  have  said,  in  a  special  degree,  a  discipline,  because  in  con- 
templating the  abstract  we  are  not  far  from  the  contemplation 
of  mind  itself  in  its  nakedness  as  a  living  process,  and  are  thus 
making  an  almost  direct  acquaintance  with  the  organon  of  all 
knowledge.  But  this  is  not  in  the  truest  and  fullest  sense 
education,  but  only  that  part  of  it  which  we  call  discipline; 
it  is  to  be  compared  to  the  sharpening  of  the  edge  of  a  tool  and 
the  strengthening  of  the  body  of  it  for  some  practical  purpose. 
Grammar,  as  the  logic  of  common  speech,  is  a  system  of 
abstractions." 

Leonard^^  is  another  writer  on  methods  who  over  and  over 

*The  Teaching  of  English  Grammar,  p.  30.     (1901.) 

'The  Teaching  of  English,  pp.  208-209.     (1902.) 

"Study  of  English  in  the  Schools.     (1887.) 

"Teaching  the  Language-Arts,  p.  156.     (1896.) 

"Language  and  Linguistic  Method.     (Second  edition,  1893.) 

^  Loc.  cit.,  p.   13. 

"  Pages  23-24. 

"  Page  8. 

"Page  66. 

"Grammar  and  Its  Reasons.     (1907.) 


lo  Teachers  College  Record  [260 

again  asserts  that  "  the  best  result  of  the  study  of  grammar  is 
a  logical  habit  of  mind."  She  maintains  that  "  in  the  discussion 
of  the  subtler  question  of  syntax  it  is  not  the  decision  reached 
that  is  of  chief  importance.  It  is  the  power  of  thinking  gained 
by  the  effort  to  compare  and  discriminate  the  relations  of  a 
thought  that  is  of  truest  educational  value."^^ 

And  Sheffield,  who  protests  against  the  unscientific  attitude  of 
most  texts  on  modern  English,  holds^**  that  "  the  grammar  of 
one's  mother  tongue  must  justify  itself  as  a  discipline,  imparting 
insight  into  the  nature  of  the  language-medium."  He  thinks, 
however,  that  "  no  result  so  fruitful  can  now  be  claimed  for 
school  work  in  English,"  and,  further,^°  that  "  the  mind  is  not 
to  be  trained  by  a  routine  of  mental  pulley-weights,  for  the 
power  to  think,  like  the  will  to  do  right,  develops  best  as  a 
by-product  of  effort  directed  upon  something  worth  while  in 
itself."  Leonard,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  optimistic.  She 
argues^ ^  that  if  the  teacher  of  grammar  sees  no  results  he  need 
not  be  discouraged.  With  a  faith  born  of  hope  she  thus  encour- 
ages the  credulous,  even  if  she  does  not  convince  the  scientific: 

"Let  him  [the  teacher]  take  up  this  necessary  subject  of 
English  grammar  with  courageous  heart,  feeling  sure  that  faith- 
ful work  along  this  line  is  sure  in  its  own  time  and  way  to 
contribute  large  and  important  elements  to  the  comprehensive 
end  which  is  perhaps  the  highest  result  of  education,  namely, 
the  perfection  of  thought  and  its  fitting  expression." 

These  quotations  from  writers  on  tlie  composition  of  the 
curriculum  and  its  method  fairly  well  represent,  too,  the  attitude 
of  the  makers  of  school  text-books.  Some  very  frankly  in  their 
prefaces  make  the  claim  of  general  disciplinary  value,  while 
others,  especially  during  recent  years,  give  no  such  reason  for 
the  study  of  grammar  but  follow  in  the  body  of  the  book  the 
same  plan  as  those  who  do.  Even  in  those  books  that  lay  much 
emphasis  on  the  application  of  grammar  to  composition  there 
are  retained  many  details — elaborate  treatment  of  the  noun  used 
as  an  adverb,  for  instance,  or  a  distinction  between  a  subordinate 
conjunction  and  a  conjunctive  adverb — that  can  be  justified  in 

''Page  349- 

"Grammar  and  Thinking,  p.  2.     (1912.) 

^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  190. 

^^  Loc.  cit.,  p.  350. 


26 1]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  ii 

an  elementary  school  study  only  as  a  means  for  training  the 
mind  to  sreneral  habits. 


Specific  Claims  for  Formal  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 

But  these  claims  for  grammar  are  too  general.  On  reading 
them  any  thoughtful  person  is  likely  to  ask,  "  Just  what  do 
they  mean  ?  "  A  definite  answer  to  this  question  is  much  more 
difficult  to  find,  most  writers  on  theory  as  well  as  practically  all 
writers  of  texts  resting  content  with  the  general  statement. 
Even  when  they  do  attempt  to  make  the  claims  for  grammar 
specific,  they  use  language  that  is  difficult  to  translate  into  terms 
of  the  fifth  to  eight  grade  teaching.  Hinsdale,--  for  example, 
writes : 

"  The  study  involves  a  peculiar  exercise  of  the  powers  of 
observation — the  forms  of  words,  idioms,  and  sentences,  and  of 
the  realities  that  are  behind  them,  distinctions,  meanings,  and 
relations.  These  forms  and  relations  develop  a  kind  of  sense 
or  perception  that  external  objects  do  not  develop.  Secondly, 
the  study  involves  also  a  vigorous  exercise  of  the  logical 
powers — analysis,  abstraction,  comparison,  inference.  Grammar 
is  the  application  of  logic  to  a  large  and  important  class  of 
facts.  The  powers  of  thought  are  developed  by  studying  the 
relations  of  objects,  external  and  internal.  The  first  rank  far 
below  the  second  in  educational  value.  .  .  .  Power  of  abstract 
thought  is  promoted  most  directly  and  effectively,  as  Professor 
Laurie  says,  '  by  formal  or  abstract  studies,  such  as  arithmetic, 
mathematics,  grammar,  logic;  and  this  because  the  occupation 
of  the  mind  with  the  abstract  is  the  nearest  approach  to  the 
occupation  of  the  mind  with  itself  as  an  organism  of  thinking.' 
Grammar  is  indeed  the  only  metaphysical  study  that  a  large 
majority  of  people  ever  pursue ;  and  if  that  would  be  a  defective 
information  which  ignored  the  facts  of  language,  a  fortiori  would 
that  be  a  defective  discipline  which  omitted  its  relations." 

And  in  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  on  Correlation 
of  Studies,  a  report  that  advocates  five  lessons  of  grammar  a 
week,  with  a  text-book,  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth  year  and  all 
of  the  sixth  and  seventh,  we  find  :-^ 

"  Grammar  is  the  science  of  language,  and  as  the  first  of  the 
seven  liberal  arts  it  has  long  held  sway  in  school  as  the  disciplin- 

^^  Teaching  the  Language-Arts,  pp.   156-157.     (1896.) 
^  Report    of    the    Sub-Committee    on    The    Correlation    of    Studies    in 
Elementary  Education,  pp.  48-49.     (1895.) 


12  Teachers  College  Record  [262 

ary  study  par  excellence.  A  survey  of  its  educational  value> 
subjective  and  objective,  usually  produces  the  conviction  that 
it  is  to  retain  the  first  place  in  the  future.  Its  chief  objective 
advantage  is  that  it  shows  the  structure  of  language,  and  the 
logical  forms  of  subject,  predicate,  and  modifier,  thus  revealing 
the  essential  nature  of  thought  itself,  the  most  important  of  all 
objects  because  it  is  self-object.  On  the  subjective  or  psycho- 
logical side,  grammar  demonstrates  its  title  to  the  first  place  by 
its  use  as  a  discipline  in  subtle  analysis,  in  logical  division  and 
classification,  in  the  art  of  questioning,  and  in  the  mental  accom- 
plishment of  making  exact  definitions.  Nor  is  this  an  empty, 
formal  discipline,  for  its  subject  matter,  language,  is  a  product 
of  the  reason  of  a  people  not  as  individuals  but  as  a  social  whole, 
and  the  vocabulary  holds  in  its  store  of  words  the  generalized 
store  of  experience  of  that  people,  including  sensuous  observation 
and  reflection,  feeling  and  emotion,  instinct  and  volition." 

After  a  consideration  of  all  the  specific  claims  that  could  be 
found  for  formal  grammar  in  the  writings  of  educational 
theorists,  of  the  contents  of  a  number  of  widely  used  grammar 
texts,  and  of  the  opinions  of  several  writers  of  grammars,  who 
were  kind  enough  to  set  down  categorically  their  beliefs  in  the 
subject,  the  following  conclusions  were  drawn:  It  is  held  that 
work  in  formal  grammar  trains  children 

A.  with  rules  or  definitions: 

1.  to  see  likenesses  and  dififerences, 

2.  to  critically  test  a  definition, 

3.  to  thoroughly  apply  a  definition, 

4.  to  make  a  rule  or  definition; 

B.  with  reasoning: 

5.  to  test  reasons, 

6a.  to  take  from  a  mass  of  data  all  that  are  necessary 
and  to  use  them  in  reaching  a  judgment, 

6b.  to  demand  all  necessary  data  before  drawing  a 
conclusion, 

7.  to  reason  in  other  fields,  e.g.,  in  arithmetic, 

8.  to  reason  syllogistically, 

9.  to  detect  "  catches." 

Common  Fallacies  in  the  Argument 

These  claims  certainly  should  justify  all  the  time  and  labor 
given  to  formal  grammar, — providing,  of  course,  that  they  are 


263]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  13 

true.  But  who  knows  that  they  are?  Who  knows,  indeed,  that 
they  are  not?  There  are  opinions  enough  expressed,  dogmatic- 
ally and  without  reserve;  but,  unfortunately  for  certitude,  these 
opinions  are  often  in  direct  contradiction  one  with  another. 
Introspection  and  the  oracular  utterances  of  those  who  "  have 
observed  thousands  of  boys  and  girls  "  must  be  rejected  as  con- 
clusive evidence  of  the  value  of  a  study  if  for  no  other  reason 
than  that  practically  as  much  will  be  on  one  side  as  on  the  other. 
Such  judgments  are  unsafe,  further,  because  not  infrequently 
the  judge  considers  only  that  evidence  which  tends  to  confirm 
a  previously   accepted  position. 

Two  fallacies  usually  invalidate  the  conclusions  of  those  who 
base  their  judgments  on  observations  merely  of  the  product  of 
the  schools.  The  first  is  the  post  hoc  fallacy.  Because  a  pupil 
has  studied  a  formal  subject  in  the  grades  and  afterwards  proves 
to  have  keen  intellectual  powers,  he  is  adjudged  to  have  attained, 
or  at  least  to  have  improved,  them  through  such  study.  No  one 
knows,  of  course,  that  this  is  true;  the  formal  subject  may  have 
made  no  difference  at  all,  or  indeed  it  may  have  retarded  the 
pupil's  intellectual  progress.  The  second  is  the  selective  fallacy. 
The  result  of  our  promotional  systems  is  grade  by  grade  to 
eliminate  among  others  those  of  least  mental  inheritance.  As 
a  result,  the  most  able  are  left  for  the  formal  studies  of  the 
upper  grades ;  and  in  these  studies  the  best  of  the  selected  class 
will  naturally  take  the  highest  rank.  It  does  not  follow  that  they 
are  the  best  intellectually  because  of  the  studies ;  whatever  effect 
the  studies  may  have  upon  the  pupils,  it  certainly  is  true  that  they 
rank  high  in  the  classes  because  of  natural  ability  and 
application. 

Nor  does  it  prove  anything  to  say  that  the  best  members  of 
a  class  when  well  taught  a  formal  subject  enjoy  it.  As  Thorndike 
has  shown,"*  there  is  an  instinct  of  multiform  mental  activity 
which  results  in  a  naive  satisfaction.  It  quite  easily  follows 
that  the  greater  the  difficulties  that  one  can  overcome,  the  greater 
the  sense  of  self-power  and  consequently  of  satisfaction.  As  a 
result  of  this  it  need  cause  no  surprise  that  some  pupils  become 
tremendously   interested   by  grammatical   subtleties.     Jespersen 

**The  Original  Nature  of  Man,  pp.  i4iff.     (1913.) 


14  Teachers  College  Record  [264 

has  declared,*^  "  I  think  that  the  study  of  grammar  is  really 
more  or  less  useless,  but  that  it  is  extremely  fascinating."  But 
just  as  the  opinions  of  other  observers  are  not  conclusive  for 
the  value  of  grammar  in  training  the  minds  of  children,  so 
the  opinion  of  Jespersen,  however  great  a  grammarian  he  may 
be,  is  not  conclusive  against  its  practical  value. 

Lack  of  Experimental  Evidence 

It  seems  strange,  at  first  thought,  that  there  is  at  hand  no 
experimental  evidence  concerning  the  value  of  formal  grammar 
as  a  discipline.  The  unanimity  with  which  psychologists  have 
discarded  the  old  ideas  of  universal  transfer  along  with  its  basis, 
the  "  faculty  psychology,"  has  at  least  put  under  suspicion  such 
claims  for  grammar  as  have  been  quoted.  It  would  seem  that 
the  burden  of  proof  is  upon  those  who  make  the  claims.  It  is 
certainly  not  convincing  for  them  to  repeat,  and  even  to  extend, 
claims  which,  in  their  origin,  were  based  on  a  psychology  that  now 
is  held  by  no  one  who  knows  the  modern  literature  of  science. 
The  burden  of  proof  rests  chiefly  on  those  who  make  the  claims 
for  formal  grammar  but  partly  also  on  those  who  now  reason, 
by  analogy  from  the  results  of  artificial  laboratory  experiments, 
against  the  general  value  of  the  subject.  As  the  analogy  of  the 
"  blacksmith's  right  arm,"  however  convincing  it  sounded  a 
score  of  years  ago,  has  proved  a  false  one,  so  likewise  analogies 
between  exercise  in  grammar  and  exercise  in  canceling  A's, 
drawing  lines,  or  throwing  a  ball,  may  be,  but  are  far  less  likely 
to  be,  unsound. 

But  on  second  thought,  it  is  easy  to  see  why  there  have  not 
been  experiments  of  transfer  from  formal  grammar  studied  in 
the  classroom.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  difficult  to  devise  tests 
that  convincingly  measure  mental  ability  in  seeing  likenesses, 
forming  a  judgment,  etc.  Then  it  is  even  more  difficult  to  secure 
for  so  continued  an  experiment  as  is  necessary  groups  of 
children  who  are  sufficiently  alike  in  natural  traits  and  training. 
And,  finally,  it  is  tedious  to  conduct  the  experiment  through 
several  months  and  then  to  compute  the  results.  No  such 
experiment  has  hitherto  been  reported,  so  far  as  an  examination 


'School  Review,  XVIII,  530. 


265]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  15 

of  the  most  important  English  and  German  journals  of  psy- 
chology and  of  pedagogy  has  revealed. 

Experiment  Devised 

Since  it  is  obvious  that  increase  in  a  child's  ability  through 
the  study  of  formal  grammar  to  see  likenesses  and  differences, 
to  critically  test  a  definition,  etc.,  is  not  of  great  worth  if  this 
increased  ability  extends  no  further  than  the  field  of  grammar 
itself,  there  was  devised  a  series  of  tests  of  these  abilities  in 
other  fields — some  artificial  and  some  such  as  occur  in  school 
or  in  life.  Tests  numbered  13-14,  21-24,  27-34  are  from 
Bonser's  study  of  "  The  Reasoning  Ability  of  Children "  f^ 
tests  43-49  are  from  Woodworth  and  Wells's  "Association 
Tests  "  f"^  and  a  number  of  the  "  catches  "  in  45-46  are  from 
Whipple's  "  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.''^^ 

The  Tests 
Practice  Sheet 

1.  One  half  of  the  following  sixteen  sums  are  alike  in  one 
respect  and  in  that  respect  unlike  all  the  other  sums  in  the 
list.     Find  the  eight  sums  and  mark  them  with  a  check  (V). 

5  +  3  6  —  2—1  9+1-^5  4  +  11  +  2 

9  —  4  6-^3  —  2  9X2  —  4  2-1-9 

5  +  5  +  4  6-2X5  8  —  2-^4  7.X4  —  2 

6-^-2+1  3  +  7X5  2X8  +  7  7-2 

2.  What  rule  for  spelling  can  you  make  that  will  apply  to  the 
following  derivative  words? 

ladies  libraries 

babies  bodies 

lilies  companies 

3.  State  all  the  ways  in  which  these  words  are  alike. 

hate  have  hide 

4.  Change  this  definition  in  any  way  to  make  it  correct. 

A  quadruped  is  a  domestic  animal. 


-"Teachers  College  Contributions  to  Education  No.  37.     (1910.) 
"  Psychological    Review    Monographs,    1910. 
^Warwick  and  York,  Inc.,  1910. 


1 6  Teachers  College  Record  [266 

5.  Animals  are  carnivorous  if  they  feed  on  flesh.  Mark  a 
heavy  line  through  each  of  the  following  words  that  names 
a  carnivorous  animal. 

lion  sheep 

duck  tiger 

horse  dog 

6.  If  this  argument  is  unsound,  briefly  tell  why. 

All  bricks  are  made  of  clay.  This  vase  is  made  of  clay. 
Therefore  this  vase  is  a  brick. 

7.  If  a  goose  standing  on  one  foot  weighs  eight  pounds,  what 
will  it  weigh  standing  on  two  feet? 

8.  To  the  right  of  each  of  the  words  in  the  following  list 
write  a  word  that  means  exactly  the  opposite. 

left —  ugly — 


9- 


in — 

fat- 

noon — 

incorrect — 

left— right 

fat- 

shoot — bird 

lend— 

oak — tree 

banana — 

color— blue 

tool — 

elbow — ami 

pag^- 

apple — seed 

clock- 

baby — cries 

dog- 

gallops— horse 

bites- 

sharp — razor 

hot— 

penny — copper 

nail — 

Group  I. 

Numbers  i-io  were  to  test  the  ability  to  see  likenesses  and 
differences.  In  i  half  the  words  are  singular.  (Eight  of  the 
words  also  happen  to  represent  inanimate  objects,  and  eight 
others  two-syllable  words);  in  2  half  are  monosyllabic;  in  3 
half  are  nonsense  words ;  in  4  half  the  numbers  are  multiples 
of  3 ;  in  5  half  the  leaves  are  palmate  veined ;  and  in  6  half  are 
serrate  edged.  In  7  and  8  the  sentences  in  each  group  are  alike 
in  a  number  of  ways, — a  number  so  large  that  it  is  even 
approached  by  no  one  pupil.  In  9  and  10  there  is  a  difference 
in  meaning  in  each  pair  of  sentences  except  the  second  of  number 


267]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  17 

10,  which  was  designed  as  a  catch.  Unfortunately  for  the 
success  of  tests  9  and  10  as  a  measure,  the  difference  in  meaning 
is  in  some  cases  more  easily  seen  than  expressed. 

Test  i 

One  half  of  the   following  sixteen  words  are  alike  in  one 
respect  and  in  that  respect  unlike  all  the  other  words  in  the  list. 
Find  these  eight  words  and  mark  them  with  a  check  (V). 
biscuit                      pirate                       mountain  men 
oxen                         geese                        fathers-in-law  factory- 
scholars                    knives                       vessel  table 
pole                       '     frame                        children  mice 

Test  2 

One  half  of  the   following  sixteen   words  are  alike  in  one 
respect  and  in  that  respect  unlike  all  the  other  words  in  the  list. 

Find  these  eight  words  and  mark  them  with  a  check  (V). 

queue                        ended                        thorough  annoy 

bore                         excellent                  as  educational 

truly                         manipulate               sawing  good 

through                    splint                       sprout  cat 

Test  3 

One  half  of  the  following  sixteen  words  are  alike  in  one 
respect  and  in  that  respect  unlike  all  the  other  words  in  the  list. 

Find  these  eight  words  and  mark  them  with  a  check  (V). 

bek                            ribbon                       bugler  bokmit 

bikreb                       bukder                      seb  rudest 

butter                        big                            begin  bak 

sabsed                     sibtad                      rob  baggage 

Test  4 

One  half  of  the  following  sixteen  numbers  are  alike  in  one 
respect  and  in  that  respect  unlike  all  the  other  numbers  in  the 
list.    Find  these  eight  numbers  and  mark  them  with  a  check  (V), 
5  21  3  8 


II 

4 

13 

41 

9  J 

19 

39 

18 

63  V 

6 

12 

26 

iS 


Teachers  College  Record 


[268 


Test  5 

One  half  of  the  sixteen  leaves  pictured  below  are  alike  in 
one  respect  and  in  that  respect  unlike  all  the  other  leaves 
pictured.  Find  these  eight  leaves  and  write  their  numbers 
here : — 


(Reduced  to  f  of  original  size). 


269] 


Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 


19 


Test  6 

One  half  of  the  sixteen  leaves  pictured  below  are  alike  in 
one  respect  and  in  that  respect  unlike  all  the  other  leaves 
pictured.  Find  these  eight  leaves  and  write  their  numbers 
here : — 


n  II       /y 

(Reduced  to  J  of  original  size) 


)  Teachers  College  Record  [270 

Test  7 

State  all  the  ways  in  which  these  sentences  are  aHke. 

1.  John  sang  two  German  songs  about  birds  and  trees. 

2.  Indian  women  gave  Mary  several  baskets  of  ripe  fruit. 

3.  The  American  boys  and  Arthur  were  busy  all  day. 


Test  8 

State  all  the  ways  in  which  these  sentences  are  alike. 

1.  I  think  he  is  guilty,  for  he  is  nervous  and  apparently  uncomfort- 
able. 

2.  Are  you  happy  merely  because  this  is  June? 

3.  You  fail  to  be  alarmed ;  but  as  the  doctor  has  had  much  experience 
with  overworked  men,  you  should  take  his  advice. 


Test  9 

How  does  the  first  sentence  in  each  of  the  following  pairs 
differ  in  meaning  from  the  second? 

1.  a)  John  held  the  lines  tight, 
b)  John  held  the  lines  tightly. 

2.  a)   It  was  Mr.  Jones  whom  I  meant. 

b)   It  was  the  Mr.  Jones  whom  I  meant. 

3.  a)  The  month  before  he  had  visited  his  cousin, 
b)  A  month  before  he  had  visited  his  cousin. 


Test  10 

How  does  the  first  sentence  in  each  of  the  following  pairs 
differ  in  meaning  from  the  second? 

1.  a)  There  was  a  crown  offered  Caesar. 
b)  There  a  crown  was  offered  Caesar. 

2.  a)  John  sent  his  friends  an  outline  of  the  plan. 
b)  John  sent  an  outline  of  the  plan  to  his  friends. 

3.  a)  Will  only  lent  me  fifty  dollars. 
b)  Will  lent  me  only  fifty  dollars. 

Group  II. 

Numbers  11-12  were  to  test  the  ability  to  judge  a  definition; 
numbers  13-14  to  test  the  ability  to  judge  a  definition  and  to 
amend   it   when   faulty. 


271]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  21 

Test  ii 

In  the  following  definitions,  place  a  small  cross,  like  this,  +, 
before  those  which  you  think  are  good  ones,  doing  it  as  quickly 
as  you  can. 

a.  Definitions  of  a  shoe. 

1.  A  portion  of  clothing. 

2.  Something  black  made  of  leather. 

3.  A  protective  covering  for  the  feet,  usually  made  of  leather, 
having  a  firm  bottom  or  sole  and  flexible  upper  portions,  an  opening 
for  the  foot  being  fastened  by  lacings,  buttons,  or  buckles. 

4.  Something  to  wear  on  the  feet. 

5.  A  necessary  article  costing  from  one  to  five  or  six  dollars. 

b.  Definitions  of  an  island. 

1.  A  piece  of  land  out  in  the  water. 

2.  A  small  body  of  land. 

3.  A  body  of  land  entirely  surrounded  by  water. 

4.  Cuba  is  an  island. 

5.  A  portion  of  land  rising  above  the  surrounding  level. 

c.  Definitions  of  to  explode. 

1.  To  burst  suddenly  with  a  loud  noise. 

2.  To  knock  all  to  pieces. 

3.  To  make  a  very  loud  noise. 

4.  To  fill  the  air  with  a  tumultuous  roar. 

5.  To   blow   up. 


Test  12 

In  the  following  definitions,  place  a  small  cross,  like  this,  +, 
before  those  which  you  think  are  good  ones,  doing  it  as  quickly 
as  you  can. 
a.  Definitions  of  a  chair. 


A  piece  of  household  furniture. 


A  movable  seat  with  a  back  intended  for  one  person. 
A  piece  of  furniture  on  which  to  sit. 
Rocking  chairs  are  comfortable  chairs. 
A  single  seat  having  a  back. 

Definitions  of  to  write. 

1.  To  make  words  with  a  pen  or  pencil. 

2.  To  make  characters  which  stand  for  ideas. 

3.  To  use  a  pen  or  pencil. 


Teacliers  College  Record  [272 

4.  To  make  marks  on  any  kind  of  surface  with  any  kind  of  an 
instrument  which  will  express  one's  ideas  so  that  another  may 
understand  them. 

5.  To  write  a  letter. 

Definitions  of  a  buggy. 

1.  A  buggy  is  black. 

2.  A  buggy  is  something  to  ride  in. 

3.  A  buggy  is  a  light,  four  wheeled  vehicle,  with  or  without  a 
top  or  covering,  designed  for  carrying  two  or  three  persons. 

4.  A  buggy  is  drawn  by  horses. 

5.  A  buggy  may  have  rubber  tires. 


Test  13 

Some  of  the  following  definitions  are  incorrect.     Change  in 
any  way  to  make  them  exactly  true. 

1.  A  square  is  a  figure  all  of  whose  sides  are  equal  and  all  of  whose 
angles  are  equal. 

2.  Writing  is  the  expression  of  facts  to  the  eye. 

3.  The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  a  curved  line  which  has  no  be- 
ginning and  no  end. 

4.  An  island  is  a  body  of  land,  usually  of  moderate  extent,  entirely 
surrounded  by  water. 


Test  14 

Change  in 
any  way  necessary  to  make  them  exactly  true. 

1.  Reading  is  getting  the  sounds  of  words  from  seeing  them. 

2.  A  prime  number  is  a  number  divisible  without  a  remainder  by 
no  whole  number  except  itself  and  one. 

3.  A  sphere  is  a  body  of  wood  all  points  in  whose  surface  are  equally 
distant  from  one  point  within. 

4.  A  bay  is  a  small  piece  of  the  ocean  near  the  land. 

Group  III. 

Numbers  15-24  were  to  test  the  ability  to  thoroughly  apply 
a  definition.  In  numbers  21-24  the  children  were  told  to  apply 
each  definition  whether  or  not  they  believed  it  to  be  a  good  one. 


2  7 3]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  23 

Test  15 

A  figure  is  radially  symmetrical  if  it  has  parts  exactly  alike 
regularly  arranged  about  a  center. 

Mark  a  heavy  line  through  each  figure  that  is  radially 
symmetrical. 


png 


"i^  @   tl  ^ 
^5"    S  E  J 


(Reduced  to  f  of  original  size). 


54  Teachers  College  Record  [274 


Test  16 

A  figure  is  bilaterally  symtnetrical  if  it  can  be  divided  by  a 
straight  line  into  two  parts  that  are  exactly  alike. 

Mark  a  heavy  line  through  each  figure  that  is  bilaterally 
symmetrical. 


^    E)    V 
^    U    & 


^    ®    ^    IS 
/]   9      ^ 


(Reduced  to  f  of  original  size). 


2  75]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 


25 


Test  17 

Figures  are  similar  when  they  are  exactly  alike  in  shape. 
Find  pairs  of  similar  figures  and  write  in  parentheses  the 
numbers  representing  each  pair.    E.g.,  (21,  53). 


®   ^    <^ 


<^  •"  7  5 

?  JO  II 


/JL 


6    O    © 


Id         Ji^  fs- 


^   4^   ^  i 

/7  7s  ^*  ^0 


(Reduced  to  f  of  original  size). 


26  Teachers  College  Record  [276 

Test  18 

Figures  are  congruent  when  they  are  exactly  aHke  in  shape 
and  size.  Find  pairs  of  congruent  figures  and  write  in 
parentheses  the  numbers  representing  each  pair.    E.g.,  (21,  53). 


b  C3  Q    O 

^  ^  o  ^ 

(Reduced  to  f  of  original  size). 


277]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Disciplnie  27 

Test  19 

Velocity  means  rate  of  motion. 

Make  a  check   (V)   by  five  of  the  following  sentences  that 
express  velocity. 

1.  The  bullet  flew   from  the  gun  to  the  target. 

2.  The  bird  flew  faster  and  faster  every  minute. 

3.  The  lightning  leaped  from  cloud  to  cloud. 

4.  The  train  was  running  twenty  miles  an  hour. 

5.  The  train  gradually  came  to  a  standstill. 

6.  Sound  moves  1096  feet  a  second. 

7.  The  normal  heart  beats  seventy-two  times  a  minute. 

8.  The  earth  revolves  once  every  twenty-four  hours. 

9.  Fear  increased  the  boy's  speed. 

10.  He  ran  more  rapidly  every  second. 

11.  The  horse  paces  a  mile  in  less  than  two  minutes. 

12.  The  farther  he  went,  the  more  slowly  he  walked. 


Test  20 

Acceleration  means  change  of  rate  of  motion. 
Make  a  check   (V)   by  five  of  the  following  sentences  that 
express  acceleration. 

1.  The  bullet  flew  from  the  gun  to  the  target. 

2.  The  bird  flew  faster  and  faster  every  minute. 

3.  The  lightning  leaped  from  cloud  to  cloud. 

4.  The  train  was  going  twenty  miles  an  hour. 

5.  The  train  gradually  came  to  a  standstill. 

6.  Sound  moves  1096  feet  a  second. 

7.  The  normal  heart  beats  seventy-two  times  a  minute. 

8.  The  earth  revolves  once  every  twenty-four  hours. 

9.  Fear  increased  the  boy's  speed. 

10.  He  ran  more  rapidly  every  second. 

11.  The  horse  paces  a  mile  in  less  than  two  minutes. 

12.  The  farther  he  went,  the  more  slowly  he  walked. 


Test  21 

Wealth  has  been  defined  as  everything,  except  man's  own 
thoughts  and  acts,  that  has  the  power  of  satisfying  human  wants 
and  that  also  can  be  sold. 


28 


Teachers 


Record 


[27i 


Make  a  check  (^)  by  eight  of  the  following  which,  according 
to  this   definition,   represent  wealth. 


I. 

A  hat 

9- 

The  Panama  Canal 

2. 

A  toothache 

lO. 

Sweeping  a  floor 

3- 

Religion 

II. 

Sunshine 

4- 

Electricity 

12. 

Freedom 

5- 

Poison 

13. 

Cultivating  a  crop  of  cotton 

6. 

An  ounce  of 

gold 

M- 

A  mosquito 

7- 

A  barrel  of 

flour 

15- 

A  woman's  hair 

8. 

A  smile 

16. 

A  blush 

Test  22 

Money  has  been  defined  as  stamped  metal  that  serves  as  a 
common  medium  of  exchange  and  measure  of  value. 

Make  a  check  ('^)  by  eight  of  the  following  which,  according 
to  this  definition,  represent  money. 


I. 

A  bank  note 

9- 

A  nickel 

2. 

An  ounce  of  silver 

10. 

A  United   States  treasury  note 

3- 

A  dime 

II. 

Gold  dust 

4- 

A  Pompeian  coin 

12. 

A  gold  two  and  a  half  dollar 

5- 

A  dollar 

piece 

6. 

A  gold  twenty-dollar 

piece 

13- 

A  gold  medal 

7- 

Rockefeller's     check 

for     ten 

14. 

A  bank  draft 

dollars 

15- 

A  quarter 

8. 

A  penny 

16. 

A  half-dollar 

Test  23 

A  transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  an  act  which  passes 
over  from  the  actor  and  afi-ects  that  which  is  named  by  the 
object. 

Make  a  check  (V)  by  each  of  the  following  sentences  which, 
according  to  this  definition,  contains  a  transitive  verb. 


The  boy  cracked  the  plate. 
The   elephant   lifted  his  master. 
The  doctor  made  a  mistake. 
He  walked  home  yesterday. 
He  seems  a  perfect  gentleman. 
The  task  was  finished  before  noon. 
The  baby  hurt  himself. 


or  tan 


279]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  29 

8.  He  passed  the  church  on  his  way  to  school. 

9.  The  merchant  owed  his  creditors  a  thousand  dollars. 

10.  She  heard  a  noise. 

11.  She  tore  the  paper. 

12.  The  rat  smelled  some  cheese.     . 


Test  24 

A  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  not  containing  a  subject  and 
predicate  and  used  like  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 

Make  a  check  (V)  by  each  sentence  which,  according  to  this 
definition,  contains  between  the  marks  of  parentheses  a  phrase 
and  nothing  besides  the  phrase  and  its  modifiers. 

1.  A  man   (in  the  road)   scared  the  horse. 

2.  She  sat  (on  the  porch  and  rocked). 

3.  He  shifted  uneasily  (from  side  to  side). 

4.  (Both  boys  and  girls)  attend  our  school. 

5.  The  man  (of  whom  I  spoke  yesterday)   came  today. 

6.  She   (may  have  finished)  her  work. 

7.  She  sang  (of  the  days  that  are  now  passed  away). 

8.  She  likes   (either  singing  or  dancing). 

9.  I  said,  ("That  is  not  true.") 

ID.    "  That  statement,"   (he  replied,)   "  is  correct." 

11.  (According  to  my  count,)  that  is  the  wrong  number. 

12.  He  was  fishing  (in  the  river). 


Group  IV. 

Numbers  25-26  were  to  test  the  ability  to  make  a  rule.  That 
the  children  might  take  the  first  step — see  the  likeness  in  each 
group — similar  words  were  placed  in  each  column.  The  desired 
rules  would,  in  substance,  read  as  follows:  Test  25.  "A  vowel 
at  the  end  of  a  monosyllabic  word  is  retained  before  a  suffix 
beginning  with  a  consonant,  and  dropped  before  a  suffix  begin- 
ning with  a  vowel."  Test  26.  "  Before  a  suffix  words  of  one 
syllable  retain  a  final  -y ;  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  drop 
a  final  -y."  The  children  were  told  that  the  rule  might  be  true 
of  no  other  words  than  those  given  in  the  test. 


30  Teachers  College  Record  [280 

Test  25 

What  rule  for  spelling  can  you  make  that  will  apply  to  the 
following  derivative  words? 

paleness  movable 

excitement  hating 

ninety  tamable 

fivefold  blaming 

lovely  servant 

improvement  negress 

Test  26 

What  rule  for  spelling  can  you  make  that  will  apply  to  the 
following  derivative  words? 

shyness  pitiful 

dryer  iciest 

crying  beautifier 

slyest  merciless 

spryness  modifier 

buying  multiplied 

Group   V. 

Numbers  27-30  were  to  test  the  ability  to  judge  reasons. 

Test  27 

The  following  reasons  have  been  given  why  New  York  has 
become  a  larger  city  than  Boston.  As  quickly  as  you  can,  place 
a  cross  like  this,  +,  before  each  reason  that  you  think  a  good 
one: 

1.  New  York  is  on  an  island. 

2.  More  foreigners  Hve  in  New  York  than  in  Boston. 

3.  New  York  is  on  a  large  river  coming  from  a  rich  agricultural 
region. 

4.  Mr.  Rockefeller  has  a  fine  home  in  New  York. 

5.  New  York  has  more  churches  than  Boston. 

6.  New  York  has  better  communication  with  the  States  lying  to 
the  west. 

7.  New  York  has  elevated  railroads. 

8.  New  York  is  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  fruit  and  agricultural  district. 

9.  New  York  is  nine  or  ten  years  older  than  Boston. 
10.     New  York  has  a  Republican  governor. 


28i]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  31 

Test  28 

These  reasons  have  been  given  to  show  that  oak  wood  is  better 
than  pine  for  making  furniture.     Check  the  good  reasons. 

1.  Oak  wood  is  harder  than  pine. 

2.  Oak  trees  have  acorns;  pine  trees  do  not. 

3.  Oak  wood  takes  a  finer  polish  than  pine. 

4.  Oak  trees  have  more  beautiful  leaves. 

5.  Oak  trees  make  good  homes  for  squirrels. 

6.  Pine  wood  will  not  last  so  long  as  oak. 

7.  Pine  is  more  easily  dented  and  defaced  than  oak. 

8.  When  polished  and  varnished,  oak  is  much  more  beautiful  than 
pine. 

9.  Pine  trees  are  sometimes  used  for  Christmas  trees. 
10.     Oak  trees  are  easier  to  climb  than  pine  trees. 


Test  29 

The  following  reasons  have  been  given  to  show  why  oranges 
grow  better  in  Florida  than  in  New  Jersey.  Check  the  good 
reasons. 


There  are  in  Florida  many  negroes  who  work  very  cheaply. 

Florida  has  warm   summer  weather  almost  the  whole  year. 

There  are  no  alligators  in  New  Jersey. 

Florida  very  rarely  has  hard   frosts. 

New  Jersey  is  not  so  large  as  Florida. 

Florida  was  settled  earlier  than  New  Jersey. 

New  Jersey  grows  many  fine  peaches. 

Florida  has  a  very  moist,  warm  climate. 

Florida  is  a  word  meaning  the  land  of  flowers. 

Florida  is  a  popular  winter  resort. 


Test  30 

Among  these  reasons  why  horses  are  better  than  cattle  for 
driving  and  working  animals,  check  those  which  you  think  are 
good  reasons. 


Horses  are  more  intelligent  than  cattle. 

Cattle  are  not  so  tall  as  horses. 

Horses  like  corn,  oats,  and  hay. 

Horses  are  much  more  active  and  walk  faster  than  cattle. 

Cattle  are  extensively  used  for  food. 


32  Teachers  College  Record  [282 

6.  Horses  are  much  more  graceful  and  beautiful  than  cattle. 

7.  The  skins  of  horses  are  sometimes  made  into  gloves. 

8.  Horses  are  more  easily  trained  and  controlled  than  cattle. 

9.  President  Roosevelt  likes  to  ride  on  horseback. 

10.    Horses  have  more  rapid  and  varied  gaits  than  cattle. 

Group  VI. 

Numbers  31-32  were  to  test  the  ability  of  children  to  select 
from  unorganized  data  all  necessary  facts  and  to  use  only  those 
in  reaching  a  conclusion.  The  fourth  problem  in  number  31 
was,  unfortunately,  so  worded  that  it  was  answered  usually  by 
a  mere  affirmative  or  negative,  neither  of  which  furnished  con- 
clusive information.  The  third  problem  in  number  32  became 
with  the  children  a  matter  of  simple  arithmetic;  they  were  too 
little  sophisticated  to  ever  complicate  the  problem  by  introducing 
the  slope.    For  these  reasons  both  problems  had  to  be  discarded. 

Test  31 

Give  answers  to  all  of  the  following  questions  that  you  can. 
If  in  any  case  you  find  it  impossible  to  give  a  definite  answer, 
state  why. 

1.  In   the   following   sentence   should  one   say   remains  or   remain? — 

"  The  hunter  is  chasing  the  deer  that  i  ''^'"^^"s     [  -^^  ^^^  park." 

(  remam       ) 

2.  A  pole  driven  three  feet  into  the  bottom  of  a  pond  projects  four 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  vi^ater.     How  long  is  the  pole? 

3.  If  one-half  of  the  ceiling  is  painted  blue,  half  the  remaining  sur- 
face red,  and  the  remainder  white,  how  can  I  find  the  area  of  the  ceiling 
if  I  know  the  length,  height,  and  width  of  the  room? 

4.  A  wealthy  man  in  a  small  town  refused  to  join  his  neighbors  in 
subscribing  money  for  the  support  of  a  great  public  good.  Do  you  think 
his  neighbors  right  in  condemning  him  for  this? 

Test  32 

Give  answers  to  all  of  the  following  questions  that  you  can.  If 
in  any  case  you  find  it  impossible  to  give  a  definite  answer,  state 
why. 

I.  Faculty  means  an  organized  body  of  teachers  giving  instruction 
in  an  institution  of  higher  learning.  Should  we  say  "  The  faculty 
is "  or  "  The  faculty  are "  ? 


283]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  33 

2.  A  vine  grows  a  certain  number  of  inches  in  four  days — one  hot, 
one  cold,  one  rainy,  and  one  clear.  How  can  you  find  the  growth  for 
each  day? 

3.  A  man  has  a  yard  thirty  feet  wide.  He  sets  it  off  from  the 
street  by  a  fence  built  of  pickets  three  inches  wide,  placed  three  inches 
apart.  The  street  slopes  so  that  one  end  of  the  fence  is  three  feet  lower 
than  the  other.     How  many  pickets  does  he  use  in  the  fence? 

4.  Dr.  Jones  intentionally  cut  Mr.  Smith  with  a  knife,  so  that  for 
three  weeks  Mr.  Smith  was  unable  to  work.  During  much  of  this  time 
Mr.  Smith  suffered  considerable  pain.  His  wages  were  twenty  dollars 
a  week.  What  damages,  if  any,  do  you  think  should  be  assessed  against 
Dr.  Jones  in  Mr.  Smith's  favor? 

Group  VII. 

Numbers  33-36,  as  devised  by  Bonser,  were  to  test  the  reason- 
ing ability  of  children  in  arithmetic.  Owing  to  a  misprint  in 
Bonser's  monograph,  the  first  problem  in  number  35  was  made 
too  difficult  and  hence  it  was  discarded  in  making  up  the  returns 
of  this  experiment. 

Test  33 
Get  the  answers  to  these  problems  as  quickly  as  you  can. 

1.  H  ^  of  a  gallon  of  oil  costs  9  cents,  what  will  7  gallons  cost? 

2.  John  sold  4  sheep  for  $5  each.  He  kept  J/^  of  the  money  and 
with  the  other  Yz  he  bought  lambs  at  $2  each.     How  many  did  he  buy? 

3.  A  pint  of  water  weighs  a  pound.     What  does  a  gallon  weigh? 

4.  At  12 J^  cents  each,  how  much  more  will  6  tablets  cost  than  10 
pens  at  S  cents  each? 

5.  At  15  cents  a  yard,  how  much  will  7  feet  of  cloth  cost? 


Test  34 
Get  the  answers  to  these  problems  as  quickly  as  you  can. 

1.  A  man  whose  salary  is  $20  a  week  spends  $14  a  week.     In  how 
many  weeks   can  he  save  $300? 

2.  How  many  pencils  can  you  buy  for  50  cents  at  the  rate  of  2  for 
5  cents? 

3.  A  man  bought  land   for  $100.     He  sold   it  for  $120,   gaining  $5 
an  acre.     How  many  acres  were  there? 

4.  A  man  spent  ^  of  his  money  and  had  $8  left.     How  much  had 
he  at  first? 

5.  The  uniforms  for  a  baseball  nine  cost  $2.50  each.     The  shoes  cost 
$2  a  pair.    What  was  the  total  cost  of  uniforms  and  shoes  for  the  nine? 


34  Teachers  College  Record  [284 

Test  35 
Get  the  answers  to  these  problems  as  quickly  as  you  can, 

1.  132  plus  what  number  equals  36? 

2.  If  John  had  15  cents  more  than  he  spent  today  he  would  have  40 
cents.     How  much  did  he  spend  today? 

3.  What  number  minus  7  equals  22? 

4.  If  James  had  4  times  as  much  money  as  George,  he  would  have 
$16.  How  much  money  has  George? 

5.  What  number  added  to  16  gives  a  number  4  less  than  27? 


Test  36 
Get  the  answers  to  these  problems  as  quickly  as  you  can. 

1.  What  number  subtracted  12  times  from  30  will  leave  a  remainder 
of  6? 

2.  If  a  train  travels  half  a  mile  in  a  minute,  what  is  its  rate  per  hour? 

3.  What  number  minus   16  equals  20? 

4.  What  number  doubled  equals  2  times  3? 

5.  If  7  multiplied  by  some  number  equals  63,  what  is  the  number? 

Group   VIII. 

Numbers  37-40  were  to  test  the  ability  to  reason  syllogistically. 
The  fourth  syllogism  in  number  40  had  to  be  discarded  as  the 
children,  because  of  their  ignorance  of  prime  numbers,  could 
not  discover  the  fallacy  in  the  argument. 


Test  37 

Some  of  these  arguments  are  faulty.  Find  each  one  that 
is  unsound  and  in  the  blank  space  below  it  briefly  tell  why. 

1.  I  am  not  able  to  buy  a  canoe  nor  can  I  be  so  mean  as  to  steal  one. 
Consequently  I  am  sure  I  shall  never  have  a  canoe. 

2.  Birds  can  sing.  I  am  larger  and  wiser  than  any  bird;  therefore 
I  can  sing. 

3.  All  Belgians  speak  French.  Some  linguists  do  not  speak  French. 
Therefore  some  linguists  are  not  Belgians. 

4.  It  is  admitted  that  if  a  man  is  stingy  he  will  refuse  to  give  money 
for  charity.  As  Mr.  Jones  does  not  give  money  for  charity,  he  is  cer- 
tainly stingy. 


28$]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  35 

Test  38 

Some  of  these  arguments  are  faulty.  Find  each  one  that 
is  unsound  and  in  the  blank  space  below  it  briefly  tell  why. 

1.  As  no  scholar  would  make  such  a  mistake,  every  man  who  says 
that  is  no  scholar. 

2.  If  John  is  president,  William  is  secretary.  But  John  is  not  presi- 
dent.    Therefore  William  is  not  secretary. 

3.  Mr.  Jones  says  that  potatoes  should  be  planted  in  "  the  dark  of 
the  moon,"  for  only  those  of  his  potatoes  planted  then  have  produced 
good  crops. 

4.  Many  great  men  have  been  wretched  penmen.  As  I  am  a  wretched 
penman,  it  is  probable  that  I  shall  be  a  great  man. 


Test  39 

Some  of  these  arguments   are   faulty.     Find   each  one  that 
is  unsound  and  in  the  blank  space  below  it  briefly  tell  why. 

1.  The  pupils  of  our  school  are  boys  and  girls.     The  masked  group 
that  you  saw  are  pupils  of  our  school ;  therefore  they  were  boys  and  girls. 

2.  I  have  never  seen   a  purple  cow,  nor  have  I  ever  heard  of   one. 
Therefore  there  is  no  purple  cow. 

3.  The  flowers  of  the  field  do  not  toil,  yet  how  beautiful  they  are. 
I  should  like  to  be  beautiful.     Therefore  I  will  not  toil. 

4.  Mr.  Smith  is  either  a  Democrat  or  a  Republican.     But  Mr.  Smith 
is  not  a  Democrat.     Therefore  he  is  a  Republican. 


Test  40 

Some  of  these  arguments  are  faulty.  Find  each  one  that 
is  unsound  and  in  the  blank  space  below  it  briefly  tell  why. 

1.  Mary,  who  is  five  feet  tall,  looks  charming  in  a  blue  dress.  There- 
fore Edna,  who  is  also  five  feet  tall,  will  also  look  charming  in  a  blue 
dress. 

2.  This  statement  is  either  true  or  false.  It  can  not  be  true;  there- 
fore it  is  false. 

3.  If  John  is  president,  William  is  secretary.  But  William  is  not 
secretary.     Therefore  John  is  not  president. 

4.  I  plus  any  power  of  4  equals  a  prime  number,  for  I  have  raised 
four  to  its  first  fifteen  powers,  adding  one  each  time,  and  found  that 
each  sum  is  a  prime  number. 


36  Teachers  College  Record  [286 

Group  IX. 

Numbers  41-42  were  to  test  the  ability  to  detect  catches. 

Test  41 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences  there  is  a  "  catch,"  Tell 
where  the  nonsense  in  each  case  is. 

1.  An  unfortunate  bicycle  rider  broke  his  head  and  died  instantly; 
he  was  picked  up  and  carried  to  a  hospital,  but  they  do  not  think  he 
will  recover. 

2.  On  the  lawn  of  a  clever  inventor  is  a  cast  iron  dog  that  opens 
its  mouth  every  time  it  sees  an  automobile  pass. 

3.  We  met  a  man  who  was  finely  dressed;  he  was  walking  along  the 
street  with  his  hands  in  his  pockets  and  twirling  his  cane. 

4.  Tlie  engineer  said  that  the  more  cars  he  had  on  his  train  the 
faster  he  could  go  up  the  hill. 

5.  The  other  day  I  was  walking  to  Boston  when  I  met  a  fine  team 
of  horses  drawing  a  wagon:  there  were  two  men  on  the  front  seat, 
and  a  man,  a  woman,  and  a  baby  on  the  back  seat;  so  five  people  were 
going  to  Boston. 

Test  42 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences  there  is  a  "  catch."  Tell 
where  the  nonsense  in  each  case  is. 

1.  John  is  taller  than  I  am;  Henry  is  taller  than  John;  and  I  am 
taller  than  Henry. 

2.  I  have  three  brothers :  Paul,  Ernest,  and  myself. 

3.  Among  the  ruins  of  Pompeii  was  found  a  coin  bearing  the  inscrip- 
tion 156  B.  C. 

4.  A  beggar  died  leaving  an  only  sister;  yet  that  sister  never  had  a 
brother. 

5.  A  soldier  who  had  lost  a  foot  and  the  lower  half  of  one  arm 
once  when  drunk  wished  to  show  his  courage;  so  he  grasped  a  sword 
and  cut  off  his  hand. 

Group  X. 

Numbers  43-46  were  to  test  the  ability  to  make  prompt  and 
accurate  associations ;  numbers  47-49,  to  follow  directions. 
These  were  given  as  check  tests,  as  it  was  maintained  by  some 
that  the  abilities  involved  would  be  afifected  more  by  general 
development  than  by  any  special  study. 


287]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  3  7 


Test  43 

To  the  right  of  each  of  the  words  in  the  following  list  writq 

a  word  that  means  exactly  the  opposite. 

long  lost 
soft  wet 
white  high 
far  dirty- 
up  east 
smooth  day 
early  yes 
dead  wrong 
hot  empty 
asleep  top 


Test  44 

To  the  right  of  each  of  the  words  in  the  following  list  write 
a  word  that  means  exactly  the  opposite. 

north  rich 

sour  dark 

out  front 

weak  love 

good  tall 

after  open 

above  summer 

sick  new 

slow  come 

large  male 

(By  means  of  the  Practice  Sheet  it  was  explained  to  the  chil- 
dren that  in  Tests  45  and  46  they  were  to  make  to  the  words 
in  the  single  column  the  same  kind  of  reaction  that  is  indicated 
in  the  double  column.) 


38 


Teachers  College  Record 


[288 


Test  45 


Eye — see 

Monday — Tuesday 
Do— did 
Bird— sings 
Hour — minute 
Straw — hat 
Cloud — rain 
Hammer — tool 
Uncle — aunt 
Dog— puppy 
Little — less 
Wash — face 
House — room 
Sky — blue 
Swim — water 
Once — one 
Cat— fur 
Pan — tin 
Buy — sell 
Oyster — shell 


Ear- 
April — 
Se^ 

Dog- 
Minute — 
Leather — 
Sun — 
Dictionary- 
Brother— 
Cat- 
Much — 
Sweep — 
Book- 
Grass — 
Fly- 
Twice — 
Bird- 
Table- 
Come — 
Banana — 


Test  46 


Good — bad 
Eagle — bird 
Eat — bread 
Fruit — orange 
Sit — chair 
Double — two 
England — London 
Chew — teeth 
Pen — write 
Water — wet 
He — him 
Boat — water 
Crawl — snake 
Horse — colt 
Nose — face 
Bad — worse 
Hungry — food 
Hat— head 
Ship — captain 
Man — woman 


Long- 
Shark — 
Drink— 
Vegetable- 
Sleep — 
Triple- 
France — 
Smell- 
Knife — 
Fire — 
She- 
Train — 
Swim — 
Cow — 
Toe — 
Good — 
Thirsty — 
Glove — 
Army — 
Boy— 


289]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  39 

Test  47 

Cross  oot  the  smallest  dot:       «^    »    ® 

Pot  a  comma  between  these  two  letters:  G    H 

How  many  ears  has  a  cat  ? 

Make  a  line  across  this  line : 

Show  by  a  cross  which  costs  more:  a  hat  or  an  orange. 

Write  8  at  the  thinnest  part  of  this  line :   -- — 

Write  any  word  of  three  letters. 

Put  a  dot  in  one  of  the  white  squares :      hiPTHJ 

Cross  out  the  word  you  know  best:  fish,  brol»  matzig. 

Leave  this  just  as  it  is :   ^>         >  ^S) 

Mark  the  line  that  looks  most  like  a  hill :      V/  ^f      \ 

How  many  t*s  are  there  in  twist?  ^  ^ 

Dot  the  line  that  has  no  dot  over  it :  III 

Write  o  after  the  largest  number:  3    8^    12 

Mark  the  name  of  a  large  city:  London,  painter. 

Make  a  letter  Z  out  of  this:      / 

Join  these  two  lines:  — -  — — 

Write  s  in  the  middle  square  t       I I   LJ    LJ 

Write  any  number  smaller  than  to. 
Put  a  question  mark  after  this  sentence 


40  Teachers  College  Record  [290 

Test  48 

Cross  out  the  g  in  tiger. 

Write  2  between  the  two  dots*      •     •        ■■■■  ■ 

How  many  feet  make  a  yard  ? 

Write  +  over  the  longest  word;  It  rained  yesterday. 

Put  a  dot  below  this  line :  «.-«— . 

Write  the  sum  of  these  numbers:    4 

Make  a  boy's  name  by  adding  one  letter  to  Joh 

Make  a  cross  in  the  circle:     /    \     V^      L_l 

What  comes  next  after  D  in  the  alphabet? 

Write  7  in  the  largest  square:      D     | I     LJ 

Cross  out  the  blackest  letter  in  TEXAS 

Write  g  on  the  egg-shaped  figure:  V^  \y  Qj^ 

Make  two  dots  between  these  lines:     VS— ^^^^^ 

Put  the  sign  =  where  it  belongs:  3  +  2      5. 

Write  here . . , . .  the  middle  letter  of  get. 

Put  a  nose  on  this  face:        *     / 

^  XXX 

Add  a  cross  and  make  these  rows  equal :    x  X  X  X 

Put  a  dot  in  the  circle,  below  the  center :     (  '   ) 

Draw  a  line  around  the  three  dots:     •  #       •  •  •        •  • 

Cross  out  the  last  word  in  this  sentence. 


291]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  41 

Test  49 

With  your  pencil  make  a  dot  over  any  one  of  these 
letters  F  G  H  I  J,  and  a  comma  after  the 
longest  of  these  three  words:  boy  mother  girl 
Then,  if  Christmas  comes  in  March,  make  a  cross  right 
here. . . ,  but  if  not,  pass  along  to  the  next  question,  and 

tell  where  the  sun  rises If  you  believe  that 

Edison  discovered  America,  cross  out  what  you  just 
wrote,  but  if  it  was  some  one  else,  put  in  a  number  to 

complete   this   sentence:     "  A   horse   has feet." 

Write  yes,  no  matter  whether  China  is  in  Africa  or  not 

;  and  then  give  a  wrong  answer  to  this  question : 

"  How  many  days  are  there  in  the  week  ?  " 

Write  any  letter  except  g  just  after  this  comma,  and 
then  write  no  if  2  times  5  are  10 Now,  if  Tues- 
day comes  after  Monday,  make  two  crosses  here ; 

but  if  not,  make  a  circle  here or  else  a  square  here 

Be  sure  to  make  three  crosses  between  these 

two  names  of  boys :    George Henry.     Notice 

these  two  numbers :      3,    5.     If  iron  is  heavier  than 

water,  write  the  larger  number  here ,  but  if  iron 

is  lighter  write  the  smaller  number  here Show 

by  a  cross  when  the  nights  are  longer :  in  summer?.  . . , 
in  winter?.  . . .  Give  the  correct  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion :     "  Does  water  run  uphill  ?  " and  repeat 

your  answer  here Do  nothing  here  (5  +  7  = 

) ,  unless  you  skipped  the  preceding  question ; 

but  write  the  first  letter  of  your  first  name  and  the  last 
letter  of  your  last  name  at  the  ends  of  this  line : 

Group  XL 

Numbers  50-53  were  to  test  the  ability  of  the  children  to 
correct  errors  and  point  ofif  sentences.  Although  these  matters 
were  outside  the  primary  interests  of  this  study,  they  were  too 
closely  related  to  be  om.itted.  In  the  schools  to  be  reported  in 
Part  IV,  the  results  of  these  tests  are  more  important  than  in  the 
Horace  Mann  School,  where  during  the  formal  grammar  periods 
no  language  work  was  attempted. 


42  Teachers  College  Record  [292 

Test  50 

Mark  out  the  incorrect  word  in  each  sentence. 

Youi^^^   ino  doubt  right. 
(  were ) 

He  hadil^!^   I  himself  on  the  bed. 
( lain   ) 

There-;  ta  few  of  my  friends  who  have  made  the  trip, 

(are     ) 

(Who         did  you  say  called? 
I  Whom 

He  is  stronger  than   \       t. 
I  me) 

I  said  that  it  wasij^f      I. 
(him  ) 

Each  of  the  boys  -1^^^   I  eager  to  go. 
I  were ) 

Nero  was  one  of  the  worst  kings  that  \  ^^    [  ever  ruled  over 


1  have 


Rome. 

After  he  hadi^^*  I  awhile,  he  left, 
(sat  f 

He   ^^°"'^     iseem  to  know. 
I  doesn  t 


■are  you  talking  about? 


Not  one  of  our  friends  J  ^^^    (-present. 

I  were  ) 
J  Who      } 
■jWhom  f 

I  knew  it  to  be  \^^      I. 
(him    I 

Everybody  was  sure  that     \  !^ .    [  lessons  had  been  good. 

One  hundred  dollars  \^^      I    enough  to  pay  for  the  boat, 
(are    ) 

The   news    V^       i  gathered   by   reporters, 
are 


Test  51 
Make  a  check  (V)  before  five  of  the  following  sentences  that 
contain  no  language  error. 

1.  He  couldn't  hardly  wait. 

2.  I  feel  good  after  a  cold  bath. 

3.  He  ain't  ready  yet. 

4.  I  am  fairly  well  today. 

5.  She  was  real  pretty,  I  thought. 

6.  He  hadn't  ought  to  do  that. 


293]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  43 

7.  I  have  got  a  deep  cold. 

8.  He  talks  too  loud. 

9.  He  stepped  off  of  the  track. 

10.  He  got  out  of  town  at  once. 

11.  Page  ten  is  all  the  farther  that  I  read. 

12.  He  seen  his  error. 

13.  He  hurt  hisself. 

14.  Between  you,  who  were  born  lucky,  and  I,  who  was  born  rich, 
there  is  little  difference. 

15.  It  is  a  long  ways  to  Alaska. 

16.  It  will  all  come  right  in  the  end,  I  am  sure. 

Test  52 

Correct  eight  language  errors  in  this  passage. 

At  first  the  faculty  of  the  college  was  by  no  means  of  one  opinion 
regarding  the  boys  guilt.  Sentiment  was  turned  against  the  young  men, 
however,  by  the  attitude  of  Johnson  when  called  before  the  president. 

"  Who  do  you  think  stole  them  apples  ?  Me  ?  "  he  exclaimed  angrily. 
"  Lewis  and  myself  would  not  do  that  kind  of  a  thing." 

After  that,  the  tide  turned  against  the  boys.  Regretting  that  it  was 
necessary,  it  was  decided  by  the  faculty  that  Johnson  and  Lewis  be 
suspended  for  a  month.  The  sentence  seemed  severe;  but  the  students, 
knowing  more  of  the  facts  than  had  been  laid  before  the  president, 
acknowledged  it  to  have  been  just. 

Test  53 

Insert  capital  letters  and  the  proper  punctuation  marks  so  as 
to  indicate   the   sentences   in   the   following  passages. 

I. 

What  a  cozy  little  room  this  is  the  moment  I  opened  the  door  I  fell 
in  love  with  the  place  do  you  see  the  great  open  fireplace  at  the  end 
of  the  room  it  will  hold  a  four-foot  log  on  the  panel  above  it  you  see 
the  motto  of  good  cheer  on  each  side  is  a  many-paned  window  and  a 
glimpse  of  the  garden  the  windows  just  now  are  framed  in  brilliant 
red  leaves  of  woodbine  is  there  anything  so  homelike  as  books  and  a  fire 
here  are  all  kinds  of  books  ranged  in  cases  on  each  side  of  the  room 
what  treasures  for  a  rainy  day  now  I  will  pull  out  a  chair  before  the 
fire  and  snuggle  down  in  luxury  with  a  story  book. 

n. 

The  squire  was  strong  and  tall,  being  over  six  feet  in  his  stockings, 
he  was  fair,  with  a  broad  face,  roughened  and  reddened  by  his  travels, 
which   had   carried   him   no   one   knows   how   far,   among  the   neighbors 


44  Teachers  College  Record  [294 

the  squire  was  held  in  high  esteem,  for  no  one  else  had  been  so  far 
or  could  spin  such  yarns  as  he,  his  position  in  the  county  being  that 
of  a  petty  king,  he  spent  his  days,  as  he  had  a  perfect  right  to  do,  in 
riding  about  and  giving  advice,  and  his  nights,  as  he  should  not  have 
done,  in  drinking  deeply  and  gambling  with  a  few  chosen  cronies. 

Group  XII. 

Number  54  was  to  test  the  knowledge  of  formal  grammar  after 
the  training  period. 

Test  54  (for  the  Horace  Mann  School) 

In  the  cities  there  are  many  things  to  do,  but  it  is  unfortunate  that 
some  of  them  cost  many  dollars  more  than  people  who  are  not  rich 
are  able  to  afford.  This  makes  a  few  of  these  people  unhappy;  but  if 
they  were  given  fortunes,  they  might  still  think  themselves  ill-treated. 

1.  From  these  sentences  select  and  write 

a)  an  adjective  clause, 

b)  an  adverb  clause.  (Grade,  20) 

2.  Tell  the  construction  (syntax,  use)  of  the  following  words: 

a)  there 

b)  to  do 

c)  to  afford 

d)  unhappy  (Grade,  40) 

3.  Test  this  sentence  for  a  predicate  attribute  of  the  object 
(objective  complement)  by  the  following  definition:  "A 
predicate  attribute  of  the  object  represents  the  effect  of  the 
act  expressed  in  the  predicate  on  that  which  the  object  repre- 
sents."— "  The  carpenter  planed  the  pine  board  smooth." 
(Grade,   30) 

4.  Tell  why  the  second  group  of  w^ords  is  (or  is  not)  a 
sentence:  "  Last  summer  there  was  a  circus  in  the  town  where 
I  visited.  The  procession  passing  down  the  street  by  my  grand- 
mother's home."     (Grade,   10) 

Test  54  (for  the  other  schools) 

In  the  cities  there  are  many  things  to  do,  but  it  is  unfortunate  that 
some  of  them  cost  many  dollars  more  than  people  who  are  not  rich  are 
able  to  afford.  This  makes  a  few  of  these  people  unhappy;  but  if  they 
were  given  fortunes,  they  might  still  think  themselves  ill-treated. 


295]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Disciplnie  45 

1.  If  either  of  these  sentences  is  compound,  write  here  the 
conjunction  that  joins  the  two  members.     (Grade,  10) 

2.  From  these  sentences  select  and  write 

a)  an  adjective  clause, 

b)  an  adverb  clause, 

c)  a  noun  clause.     (Grade,  10  each.) 

3.  Parse  the  verb  phrase  were  given.     (Grade,  10) 

4.  Tell  the  construction  (syntax,  use)  of  the  following  words: 

a)  there  f)  than 

b)  to  do  g)  who 

c)  it  h)  to  afford 

d)  that  i)  unhappy 

e)  dollars  j)   fortunes.     (Grade,  5  each.) 

Scoring 

An  attempt  was  made  to  have  the  tests  that  were  administered 
in  January  equal  in  difficulty  to  the  corresponding  ones  that 
were  administered  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  and  again 
in  April.  But  inasmuch  as  it  is  all  but  impossible  to  foresee 
details  that  will  cause  difficulties  peculiar  to  the  child  mind, 
it  was  necessary  to  equalize  the  tests  somewhat  by  the  method 
of  scoring  employed.  Through  the  courtesy  of  Superintendent 
E.  C.  Broome  and  of  Professor  F.  G.  Bonser,  a  number  of  the 
tests  were  given  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  at  Mt.  Vernon, 
New  York,  and  at  the  Speyer  School,  in  order  to  ascertain  their 
relative  difficulty.  Largely  on  the  basis  of  the  information  thus 
obtained  the  scoring  was  adjusted  so  as  to  secure  results  easily 
comparable.  Inasmuch  as  the  gain  or  loss  of  one  group  of 
children  is  significant  only  when  compared  with  that  of  the 
other,  the  changes  in  any  score  did  not  affect  the  truth  that  it 
expressed. 

(All  scores  are  expressed  as  averages.) 

Tests  1-6 
8  correctly  checked  =  10 
7  or  9  correctly  checked  =    4 
6  correctly  checked  =    2 
(For  comparison,  the  score  of  Test  i  is  multiplied  by  2.) 


46  Teachers  College  Record  [296 


Tests  7-8 

Likeness  in  a  common  letter  =     .5 

(with  a  maximum  of  2  X.5) 
Any  other  common  element  =      i 
Each  error  i  = — ,5 

(For  comparison,  the  score  of  Test  8  is  multiplied  by  2.) 

Tests  9-10 

Each  correct  answer  =  i 
(For  comparison,  the  score  of  Test  9  is  multiplied  by  7.) 

Tests  1 1- 1 2 

a  b  c 

12345  12345  12345 

Test  II -2,-4,    7.    2,-5;  2,-4,    7,  -2, -Z;  7,-3,-3,-3,    3- 

Test  12 -2,    7,     1,-7,    2;  I,     1,-4,    7,-3;  -7,    2,    7,-3,-4. 

Unattempted  =  —  10 
(For  comparison,  the  score  of  Test  12  is  multiplied  by  5/4.) 

Tests  13-14 

Each  definition  correctly  changed  =  2 
(The  correct  definition  in  each  test  was  not  counted  a  score 
unless  it  was  in  some  way  approved.) 

Tests  15-16 

Each  figure  correctly  marked      =      2 

Each  figure  incorrectly  marked  =  —  2 

Unattempted  =  —  8 

(For  comparison,  the  score  of  Test  16  is  multiplied  by  2.) 

Tests  17-18 

Each  pair  correctly  made         =       i 
Error  in  star  figures  =  —  i 

Each  other  error  =  —  2 

Unattempted   or   meaningless  =  —  8 


2  97]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  47 

Tests  ip-22 

Each    correct    check  =       i 

Each  error  =  —  i 

Unattempted  =  —  8 

(For  comparison,  the  score  of  Test  21  was  multiplied  by  3.) 

Test  23 

Each  correct  check  =      i 

Each  check  of  numbers  4,  5,  6  =  —  2 
Any  other  incorrect  check  =  —  i 
Unattempted  =  —  6 

Test  24 

Each  correct  check  =       i 

Each  check  of  numbers  2,  4,  8,  9,  10  =  —  2 
Any  other  incorrect  check  =  —  i 


Unattempted 

= 

—  6 

Tests  25-26 

Each  correct  rule 

=  I 

Tests  27- so 

I 

2 

3        4        5 

6 

7 

8        9 

10 

Test  27 
Test  28 
Test  29 
Test  30 

—  2, 
2, 

—  I, 
3, 

I, 

—  3. 
3, 

—  2, 

3.  —3>—^, 
3,  —3.  —3, 

—  3.       3,-3,- 

—  3.       3,-2, 

3-  - 
2 

-3>  - 
2,  - 

—  I, 

3. 

—  2, 

-3, 

3,       I, 
3,  —3, 
3,  —3, 
3,  —3. 

—  3- 

—  3. 

—  3- 
2. 

Unattempted  =  —  6 
(These   scores  are  the  medians  of  scores  attributed  by  five 
trained  psychologists   and   four  graduate  students.     For  com- 
parison, the  score  of  Test  27  was  multiplied  by  1.6.) 

Tests  31-32 

Each  correct  answer  =  i 
(For  reasons  already  given  number  4  in  31   and  number  3 
in  32  were  discarded.    The  total  score  is  then  divided  by  3.) 


48  Teachers  College  Record  [298 

Tests  33-36 

Each  correct  answer  =  i 
(Owing  to  a  misprint  in  Bonser's  report,  32  in  the  first 
example  of  Test  35  became  132,  thus  causing  more  difficulty 
than  was  intended.  Hence  this  example  was  discarded.  The 
total  score  is  then  divided  by  the  number  of  examples  in  each 
test.) 

Tests  37-40 

Each  fallacy  explained  =  i 
(The  sound  syllogism  is  scored  in  each  test  if  it  is  left  blank, 
providing  the  others  are  attempted.  Owing  to  the  ignorance  by 
many  children  of  prime  numbers,  number  4  of  Test  40  was 
discarded  and  all  scores  are  reported  on  the  basis  of  single 
syllogisms.  For  comparison,  the  score  of  Test  38  is  multiplied 
by  1.6.) 

Test  41 

Minor  catch  detected  in  number  2  =.5 
Each  other  catch  detected  =  i 

Test  42 

Each  catch  detected  in  numbers  i,  2,  5  =  1 
Each  catch  detected  in  numbers  3,  4     =2 
(For  comparison,  the  score  is  multiplied  by  1.25.) 

Tests  43-44 

Each  opposite  correctly  given  =       i 
Each  error  =  —  i 

Tests  45-46 

Each    correct    reaction  =       i 
Each  minor  error  = — .5 

Each  other  error  =  —  i 

Tests  47-49 
Each  correct  reaction  =  i 


299]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  49 

Test  ^0 

Each    sentence  corrected  =       i 
Each  error  =  —  i 

(The   score   is    reported   as  the   total   score   divided   by   the 
number  attempted.) 

Test  51 

Each  correct  check    =       i 
Each  incorrect  check  =  —  2 

Test  52 

Each  correct  change  =      2 

Each   incorrect  change  =  —  2 

Each  error  checked  but  not  corrected  =       i 

Test  53  I. 

Each   terminal    punctuation  =       i 
Each  ?  or  !  =  additional       i 

Each  capital  letter  =       i 

Each  error  =  —  2 

Unattempted  =  —  8 

Test  53  II. 

Each    terminal    punctuation  =       i 
Each  ?  or  !  =  additional       i 

Each  capital  letter  =       i 

Each  error  =  —  2 

Unattempted  =  —  4 


PART  III 

CONDITIONS  SECURED  AT  THE  HORACE  MANN 
SCHOOL 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Principal  Henry  Carr  Pearson, 
conditions  as  nearly  ideal  as  could  be  expected  for  such  an 
extended  experiment  were  provided  in  the  Horace  Mann 
Elementary  School.  Two  seventh  grades,  consisting  of  the 
children  of  well-to-do  parents  and  of  members  of  the  university 
family,  were  put  at  the  disposal  of  the  experimenter  for  three 
thirty-minute  periods  a  week  during  six  months.  During  this 
time  the  number  of  children  in  each  grade  varied  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty.  So  far  as  could  be  ascertained,  there  had  been 
an  absolutely  chance  division  of  the  children:  most  of  those  in 
each  room  had  been  in  the  school  during  a  term  of  years,  about 
an  equal  number  in  each  room  had  had  kindergarten  training, 
they  were  about  equally  divided  as  to  sex,  etc. 


The  Children  and  School  Conditions 

But  inasmuch  as  the  numbers  were  too  small  for  dependence 
to  be  put  in  the  fairness  of  the  division  by  chance,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  determine  the  relative  abilities  of  the  children.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  the  teacher  in  charge  of  each  room,  the 
special  teacher  of  arithmetic  (who  also  was  in  charge  of 
Room  II),  the  special  teacher  of  history,  and  the  teachers  who 
had  had  nearly  all  the  children  in  the  sixth  grade  during  the 
preceding  year  were  asked  to  rank  them  in  five  classes  according 
to  their  general  intellectual  ability.     Following  are  the  results: 

50  [300 


30i] 


Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 


51 


TABLE  I 

Showing  the  Rankings  of  the  Children 
Ability  by  the  Teacher  of  Geography. 


IN  General  Intellectual 


Rank 
I 
2 
3 
4 
5 


Number  in 
Room  I. 

4 
7 
II 
5 
2 


Weight 

5  ■- 
4  : 
3    - 

2  : 
I      : 


Number  in 
Room  II. 
6 
9 
8 
3 
3 


Weight 

5  = 

4  = 

3  - 

2  - 


93 


99 


TABLE  II 

Showing  the  Rankings  of  the  Children  in  General  Intellectual 
Ability  by  the  Teacher  of  History. 


Rank 
I 
2 
3 
4 
5 


Number  in 
Room  I. 

4 
7 
9 
7 
2 


Weight 
«       5    = 

C  4      : 

<        3 
t        2 

IC  I 


=  27 

=   14 

=        2 


Number  in 
Room  II. 
8 
7 
9 
3 
2 


Weight 

5  = 
4  = 
3    - 

2      : 


40 


91 


103 


Between  the  rankings  of  these  two  teachers  there  is,  as 
measured  by  the  Spearman  Footrule  Method,  a  positive  corre- 
lation of  .79. 

Tabulating  and  weighting  the  rankings  by  the  four  teachers, 
the  rankings  of  the  other  two  teachers  not  being  presented  here 
in  detail,  we  have: 


TABLE 

III 

Number  in 

Number  in 

Rank 

Room  I. 

Weight 

Room  II. 

Weight 

1 

20 

X 

5    =  100 

25 

X 

5    =  125 

2 

27 

X 

4    =  108 

31 

X 

4    =  124 

3 

37 

X 

3    =  III 

30 

X 

3    =    90 

4 

22 

X 

2    =     44 

13 

X 

2    =    26 

5 

5 

X 

I     =      5 

12 

X 

I     =     12 

377 


52  Teachers  College  Record  [302 

These  three  tables  seem  to  show  that  in  the  judgments  of  the 
teachers  who  best  knew  the  children  the  two  groups  as  wholes 
varied  very  little  in  their  natural  intellectual  ability.  So  far 
as  these  three  tables  are  indicative,  however,  the  children  of 
Room  II  were  slightly  superior. 

The  personal  equation  of  the  teachers  necessarily  influences 
such  rankings ;  consequently  the  children  were  compared  also  on 
the  basis  of  their  reactions  on  October  first  to  the  standardized 
tests,  numbers  44,  46,  47,  and  48,  which  are,  perhaps,  as  good 
tests  of  general  intellectual  power  as  have  been  devised.  It  was 
found  that  when  the  scorings  were  divided  into  five  ranks  and 
each  rank  was  weighted,  the  following  comparison  resulted. 


TABLE  IV 

Test  44 

Room  I. 

Room 

II. 

0 

X 

5 

—    0 

2 

X 

5 

=  10 

3 

X 

4 

=  12 

2 

X 

4 

=    8 

9 

X 

3 

=  27 

8 

X 

3 

=  24 

9 

X 

2 

=  18 

6 

X 

2 

=  12 

2 

X 

I 

=    2 

6 

X 

I 

=    6 

- 

— 

23 

59 

24 

60 

Av. 

2. 

57 

2.50 

Test  46 


Room  I. 

Room 

II. 

4 

X 

5 

=  20 

5 

X 

5 

=  25 

5 

X 

4 

=  20 

8 

X 

4 

=  32 

8 

X 

3 

=  24 

4 

X 

3 

=    12 

6 

X 

2 

=  12 

5 

X 

2 

=    10 

0 

X 

I 

=    0 

2 

X 

I 

=      2 

23 

76 
3-30 

24 

81 
3.38 

303]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  53 

Tesi  47 


R 

00m  I. 

Ro 

0»l 

II. 

3 

X 

5 

=  IS 

2 

X 

5 

=  10 

5 

X 

4 

=  20 

II 

X 

4 

=  44 

II 

X 

3 

=  33 

7 

X 

3 

=  21 

4 

X 

2 

=    8 

3 

X 

2 

=    6 

0 

X 

I 

=    0 

I 

X 

I 

=     I 

22 

76 
3-30 

Test  48 

24 

82 
3-42 

Room  I. 

Room 

II. 

5 

X 

5 

=  25 

3 

X 

5 

=  IS 

5 

X 

4 

=  20 

6 

X 

4 

=  24 

2 

X 

3 

=    6 

4 

X 

3 

=  12 

7 

X 

2 

=  14 

5 

X 

2 

=  10 

4 

X 

I 

=    4 

5 

X 

I 

=    5 

23 

69 
3.00 

23 

66 
2.87 

These  results  seem  to  show  that  Room  II  as  a  whole  is  slightly 
more  variable  than  Room  I  and  also  that  it  averages  somewhat 
higher  in  ability.  The  latter  conclusion  is  confirmed  by  the 
results  of  the  remaining  tests  given  before  any  training.  Among 
the  seventeen  in  which  positive  scores  were  made  by  both  rooms, 
Room  II  was  superior  in  11,  equal  in  i,  and  inferior  in  5  to 
Room  I.  The  diJfferences  between  the  scores  expressed  as  per 
cents  of  the  lower  are  as  follows : 

Room  I  superior  by  2,  9,  18,  36,  44, — with  an  average  of  22. 

Room  II  superior  by  10,  17,  25,  31,  33,  33,  42,  56,  57,  62,  81, — 
with  an  average  of  41. 

When  the  children  are  compared  as  to  age  it  is  seen  that 
Room  II  shows  a  wider  distribution,  but  the  averages  and 
medians,  counted  by  half  years,  are  identical.  The  distribution 
is  shown  in  Figure  I.  Whatever  variation  exists  probably  is  not 
significant,  for  there  is  a  correlation  (Spearman  Footrule 
Method)  between  the  age  and  intellectual  ability,  of  the  children 


54 


Teachers  College  Record 


[304 


of  Room  II,  of  only  +.06,   and  between  age  and  ranking  in 
knowledge  of  grammar  of  only  +.19. 

But  inasmuch  as  chance  distribution,  the  ranking  of  teachers, 
and  the  results  of  the  tests  used  might  be  inaccurate,  a  double 
check  was  arranged.     At  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  1912, 


Figure  I 
Showing  Age  Distribution  Correct  to  Revised  Half  Year.     (Oct.  I,  1913.) 


1 1  r^ 


UIMI^ 


t/.i- 


Room     I. 
Room  II 


Av.  12^,  Med.  12.9 
Av.  12.S,    Med.  12.8 


all  of  the  children  were  given  the  first  set  of  tests.  Then  for 
three  months,  three  periods  a  week,  the  children  of  Room  I  were 
taught  formal  grammar  by  the  experimenter,  who  for  five  years 
had  given  instruction  in  the  subject  in  a  state  normal  school; 
during  these  three  months  the  children  of  Room  II  had  work 
in  composition  and  language.  There  were  then  given  the  second 
set  of  tests,  after  which  the  conditions  were  reversed :  the  children 
of  Room  II  having  formal  grammar;  those  of  Room  I  working 


305]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  55 

with  language  and  composition.  Then  about  the  middle  of  April, 
1913,  the  first  set  of  tests  was  again  given  to  all  the  children. 
By  this  arrangement,  original  difference  in  intellectual  abilities 
mattered  little.  Not  only  could  the  record  of  Room  I  with 
formal  grammar  for  three  months  be  compared  with  that  of 
Room  II  without  it,  and  vice  versa;  but  also,  so  far  as  each  test 
is  comparable  with  its  fellow  in  difficulty,  the  record  of  each 
room  with  formal  grammar  could  be  compared  with  the  record 
made  by  the  same  room  during  the  three  months  when  it  was 
taught  language  and  composition. 


Other  Conditions 

During  the  two  teaching  periods  of  three  months  each,  as  many 
conditions  as  could  be  controlled  were  alike.  The  rooms  were 
practically  the  same  in  every  respect;  the  course  of  study  was 
identical  for  both  rooms,  some  children  in  each  taking 
French,  others  German,  etc. ;  the  children  of  both  rooms  had  in 
common  teachers  of  formal  grammar,  history,  arithmetic, 
geography,  German  or  French,  music,  and  manual  arts;  the 
grammar  in  each  room  was  taught  at  some  period  between  10 130 
and  I  :oo,  when  school  was  dismissed  for  the  day. 

It  would  be  better,  of  course,  had  more  time  been  devoted  to 
the  experiment,  but  it  could  hardly  have  been  taken  without 
working  an  injustice  to  the  children.  Besides,  it  was  believed 
that  if  there  were  any  marked  transfer  of  the  abilities  acquired 
through  the  study  of  formal  grammar,  it  should  be  manifest 
after  three  months  of  intensive  work.^^  Especially  should  this 
be  true  if  the  subject  be  taught,  as  it  was,  as  '  an  elementary  part 
of  logic,  the  beginning  of  the  analysis  of  the  thinking  process.'^" 
In  each  class  the  same  material  was  used — the  sentence  and 
each  of  its  essential  elements;  adjectives  and  adverbs;  and 
phrases  and  clauses  as  modifiers.  Emphasis  was  laid  not  at  all 
on  grammar  in  its  relation  to  literature  and  composition,  but 


^  The  course  of   study  provides  that  approximately  half  of  the  three 
periods  a  week  throughout  the  year  be  given  to  grammar. 
'"J.  S.  Mill,  quoted  by  Leonard,  loc.  cit. 


56  Teachers  College  Record  [306 

on  the  subject  as  a  strict  science.  The  children  were  given 
crude  material,  from  which,  after  likenesses  and  differences  were 
discovered,  definitions  were  built  up.  These  definitions  were 
compared  with  those  in  standard  texts  and  all  of  them  criticized ; 
and  then  the  accepted  definition  was  repeatedly  applied,  with 
systematic  thoroughness,  to  examples.  In  fact,  all  of  the 
activities  of  the  mind  which  are  asserted  to  be  improved  by  the 
study  of  formal  grammar  were  attempted  as  frequently  as  time 
would  permit. 


Attempt  to  Secure  a  General  Ideal 

From  time  to  time  during  the  formal  grammar  teaching 
attempts  were  made  to  establish  a  general  ideaP^  of  the  methods 
pursued.  Attention  was  called  to  the  necessity  of  seeing  like- 
nesses and  differences,  of  thoroughly  applying  definitions,  etc., 
in  arithmetic,  geography,  and  other  matters  as  well  as  in 
grammar,  and  a  small  amount  of  practice  was  given  in  several 
other  fields.  Very  little,  however,  seemed  to  be  accomplished, 
though  more  effort  was  expended  than  can  be  reasonably 
expected  from  the  class-room  teacher  in  the  ordinary  routine  of 
her  work. 

To  those  who  have  only  theoretical  ideals  of  the  kind  and 
amount  of  grammar  that  should  be  taught  in  the  upper  grades 
the  results  of  the  three  months'  work  would  seem  pitifully  small. 
Despite  the  general  interest  of  the  children  in  the  class-room 
work,  they  learned  just  enough  grammar  to  be  a  disappointment 
and  source  of  vexation  to  the  teachers  of  the  high  school,  which 
they  will  enter  in  the  fall  of  1913.  And  yet  their  accomplishment 
was  quite  as  great,  judged  by  the  results  of  Test  54,  as  that  of 
children  in  typical  public  schools.  Whatever  be  the  truth  about 
the  amount  of  transfer,  it  is  a  question  whether  elementary 
school  children  can  under  ordinary  conditions  learn  enough  of 
formal  grammar  to  justify  its  study.  Owing  chiefly  to  better 
teaching  by  the  experimenter,  especially  in  the  increased  amount 
of  drill,  the  children  of  Room  II  showed  in  their  grammar 
examination  immediately  after  the  training  period  better  results 
than  did  those  of  Room  I.    These  results  are  shown  in  Table  V. 

"  Ruediger,  Educ.  Rev.,  XXXVI,  364  ff- 


307]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  57 

TABLE  V 

Showing  Grades  on  the  Examination  at  the  End  of  the  Period  of 
Formal  Grammar  Teaching. 


Boys 

Room  I. 

Room  II. 

X 

50 

25 

2 

47.5 

30 

3 

0 

45 

4 

25 

20 

5 

5 

10 

6 

48 

55 

7 

5 

20 

8 

Absent 

75 

9 

2.5 

50 

ID 

Absent 

30 

II 

25 

25 

12 

10 

55 

13 

7.5 

20 

14 

27.5 

20 

15 

45 

40 

16 

18 

Girls 

I 

7.5 

90 

2 

10 

50 

3 

28 

60 

4 

37.5 

90 

5 

7-5 

65 

6 

48 

50 

7 

17-5 

75 

8 

17-5 

5 

9 

20 

60 

10 

65 

25 

II 

5 

70 

12 

20 

55 

13 

50.5 

65 

14 

50 

15 

42.5 

Average  25.88  44.76 

Administration  of  the  Tests 

The  tests  were  given  personally  by  the  experimenter,  who 
stood  in  a  doorway  that  connected  the  two  rooms.  Thus  the 
children  sat  in  their  own  seats,  each  with  a  practice  sheet,  by 


58  Teachers  College  Record  [308 

which  instructions  were  given  when  it  was  necessary.  The 
children  were  highly  interested  throughout  all  the  periods,  the 
longest  of  which  was  forty-five  minutes;  the  others,  thirty  or 
less. 

The  tests  were  administered  as  follows :  Individual  test  sheets 
were  passed,  and  after  the  children  had  written  their  names  on 
the  backs  the  sheets  were  kept  face  down  until  instructions  were 
given.  Any  necessary  questions  were  answered,  but  the  instruc- 
tions were  so  carefully  prepared  that  seldom  was  there  any 
question.  At  a  signal  each  child  held  up  his  pencil  to  signify 
his  readiness ;  at  "  Go !  "  he  turned  over  his  paper  and  worked 
until  he  either  finished  or  heard  "  Stop !  "  During  the  tests  all 
objective  conditions  were  the  same  except  that  the  experimenter 
was  at  the  back  of  one  room  and  at  the  front  of  the  other. 

The  amount  of  time  allowed  to  each  exercise  was  determined 
partly  by  the  preliminary  tests  given  at  Mt.  Vernon,  and  then 
changes  were  made  as  the  tests  proceeded  in  the  Illinois  schools.^* 
The  ideal  in  most  cases  was  to  allow  enough  time  so  that  all 
who  were  capable  or  who  worked  steadily  could  finish  within 
the  time  limit.  In  the  association  tests  the  ideal  was  to  allow  not 
quite  enough  time  for  anyone  to  get  entirely  through,  undistri- 
buted perfect  scores  being  almost  as  impossible  to  interpret  as 
undistributed  zeros.  Careful  records  kept  of  the  amount  accom- 
plished in  the  association  tests  and  of  the  number  of  pupils 
completing  the  others  showed  that  the  time  allowance  was  fair 
and,  in  most  cases,  not  far  from  the  ideal.  It  was  notable  that 
hardly  any  of  the  approximately  six  hundred  children  tested 
used  any  of  the  time  remaining  after  they  had  "  finished." 
Instead  of  verifying  their  results,  practically  all  of  those  who 
finished  within  the  time  allowance  merely  waited  for  the  final 
signal.  This  was  true,  likewise,  of  many  who  failed  to  secure 
within  two  or  three  minutes  a  clue  to  such  tests  as  1-6. 

Results 
[In  all  of  the  Tables  the  score  and  gain  made  following  the  training 
period  in  formal  grammar  are  in  italics.] 

Group  I.     Ability  to  see  likenesses  and  differences. 
Of  these  tests,  numbers  2,  3,  and  5  proved  too  difficult.     In 
*^  Reported  in  Part  IV. 


est  I 

Test  4b 

Gain 

4-74 

8.15 

3-41 

5-94 

6.40 

.46 

309]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  59 

number  2,  when  it  was  first  given,  no  child  scored.  In  number  3 
only  one  child  from  Room  I  scored  and  only  three  from  Room 
II;  in  number  5  only  one  child  from  Room  I  scored  and  none 
from  Room  II.  Consequently  these  tests  are  discarded.  Pairing 
numbers  i  and  4,  we  have  Table  VI. 

TABLE  VI 
Test  4a*      Test  i         Gain 
Room    I.  3.60  4.74  1. 14 

Room  II.  2.50  5.94  3.44 

Room  I  in  the  preliminary  test  showed  a  superiority  over 
Room  II  in  seeing  likenesses.  After  three  months  of  formal 
grammar,  Room  I  showed  only  about  a  third  as  much  gain  in 
this  ability  as  Room  II,  without  formal  grammar,  showed. 
Room  II,  on  the  other  hand,  after  its  three  months  of  formal 
grammar,  showed  only  about  an  eighth  as  much  gain  as  Room  I, 
after  three  months  without  formal  grammar,  showed.  When 
each  room  is  compared  with  itself.  Room  I  gained  with  formal 
grammar  only  about  a  third  of  what  it  gained  without;  while 
Room  II  only  about  an  eighth  as  much.  Thus  the  comparison 
of  room  with  room  or  of  each  room  with  itself  affords  practically 
the  same  results,  the  smaller  score  going  after  the  work  in  formal 
grammar  in  each  of  the  four  cases. 

When  number  2  was  given  the  second  time  (in  April,  1913) 
a  normal  number  scored  from  each  room.  Comparing  these 
scores  with  those  made  by  the  four  children  in  number  3  (in 
January,  1913),  we  have  a  similar,  though  less  trustworthy, 
result,  as  shown  in  Table  VII. 

TABLE  VII 

Test  3                 Test  2a  Gain 

Room    I.               .36                      2.41  2.05 

Room  IL               .86                      2.31  1.45 

The  gain  of  Room  II  with  formal  grammar  is  only  three-fourths 
that  of  Room  I  without  it. 


*  The  letter  a  is  added  after  the  number  of  the  test  when  it  was  given 
in  October;  b  is  added  when  the  same  test  was  given  a  second  time  in 
April. 


6o  Teachers  College  Record  [310 

In  numbers  7-8  the  highest  number  of  common  elements 
recorded  by  any  child  was  only  about  one-third  the  number 
recorded  by  all  the  children.  Here  was  a  field,  then,  in  which 
ingenuity  could — and  did — find  ample  latitude.    See  Table  VIII. 


TABLE  VIII 

Test  8a 

Test  7          Gain 

Test  7 

Test  8b 

Gain 

Room    I. 

1. 41 

3.48           2.07 

3-48 

3-24 

—.24 

Room  II. 

2.28 

3-33            I -05 

3-33 

5-30 

J. 97 

Room  I  with  formal  grammar  brought  its  score  up  from 
62  per  cent  of  that  of  Room  II  to  a  slight  superiority ;  Room  II 
then,  with  formal  grammar,  brought  its  score  up  from  practical 
equality  to  1.64  times  that  of  Room  I.  Compared  with  them- 
selves, Room  I  gained  2.07  during  the  three  months  with  formal 
grammar  and  lost  .24  during  the  three  months  without  it,  while 
Room  II  gained  1.05  during  the  period  without  formal  grammar 
and  1.97  during  the  period  with  it.  Here  the  superiority  goes 
after  formal  grammar  in  each  of  the  four  comparisons. 

Tests  number  9-10  proved  so  difficult  that  no  great  amount  of 
confidence  can  be  put  in  the  results.  However,  in  this  as  in 
every  other  case  conditions  were  equal  for  both  rooms. 
Table  IX  shows  that  with  formal  grammar  each  room  gained 
more  than  the  other  room  or  itself  without  it. 

TABLE  IX 

Test  loa       Test  9         Gain  Test  9  Test  lob  Gain 

Room     I.                 1. 00            1.50              .30  1.50  1.59  .09 

Room  II.                 1. 00            1.05              .05  I. OS  1.44  .39 

The  results  as  shown  in  these  tables  are  somewhat  favorable 
to  the  room  having  had  formal  grammar,  its  score  being  superior 
to  the  other,  when  the  untrustworthy  Tables  VII  and  IX 
are  included,  in  eight  out  of  thirteen  comparisons.  Excluding 
these  tables,  we  find  that  the  room  with  formal  grammar  is 
superior  in  six  out  of  ten  comparisons. 

Group  II.    Ability  to  judge  a  definition. 

The  low  scores  in  12a  are  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the 
children   worked   slowly  in  this  first  test  and  partly  to  their 


31 1]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  6i 

obsession  for  the  poor  definitions  a  i  and  a  4.  In  April,  when 
number  12  was  given  the  second  time,  the  children  were  advised 
to  distribute  their  time  equally  among  the  three  parts  and  signals 
were  given  at  the  end  of  37,  71,  and  105  seconds.  Judged  by 
the  scores  as  compared  with  those  of  number  11,  this  device 
seemed  to  accomplish  little;  as  a  matter  of  fact  several  of  the 
children — there  may  have  been  more — were  observed  working 
with  pride  ahead  of  the  signal.  The  device  would  probably 
have  improved  the  first  scores,  however,  had  it  been  used. 

TABLE  X 

Test  12a       Test  11        Gain  Test  11  Test  12a  Gain 

Room    I.                —.76          13.80         14.56  13-80  14.33  -55 

Room  II.                  2.14          18.38          14.24  18.38  14-90  — 3.48 

In  numbers  13-14  the  children  were  asked  not  only  to  judge 
four  definitions  but  also  to  correct  those  that  were  untrue.  As 
it  was  impossible  when  a  definition  was  passed  over  to  tell 
whether  the  child  considered  it  correct  or  too  difficult  to  attempt, 
the  fourth  definition  in  number  13  and  the  second  in  number  14 
were  scored  only  when  they  were  in  some  manner  approved. 


TABLE  XI 

Test  14a 

Test  13        Gain 

Test  13 

Test  14b 

Gain 

Room    I. 

.96 

2.43           1.47 

2.43 

3.13 

.70 

Room  II. 

1.28 

2.52           1.24 

2.52 

3-^3 

.71 

From  Table  X  we  see  that  Room  I  with  formal  grammar 
gained  about  two  per  cent  more  than  did  Room  II  without  it; 
and  that  when  the  conditions  were  reversed  Room  II  actually 
lost  3.48  while  Room  I  was  gaining  .55.  Because  of  the  great 
difference  between  the  gains  in  the  first  practice  period  and  in 
the  second,  a  comparison  of  each  room  with  itself  is  unprofitable. 
As  it  stands,  however,  such  a  comparison  shows  that  Room  I 
with  formal  grammar  gained  14.01  more  than  it  did  without  it, 
while  Room  II  with  formal  grammar  gained  17.72  less  than  it 
did  with  it. 

Table  XI  shows  the  gain  of  Room  I  with  formal  grammar 
approximately  nineteen  per  cent  more  than  that  of  Room  II 


62  Teachers  College  Record  [312 

without  it ;  and  with  the  conditions  reversed,  gains  that  are 
practically  identical.  As  prime  numbers  seem  to  have  been 
learned  during  the  year,  a  comparison  of  each  room  with  itself 
reveals  nothing  of  value.  The  results  of  the  tests  in  this  group 
are  neutral.  There  is  no  evidence  of  a  positive  transfer  after 
formal  grammar. 

Group  III.     Ability  to  thoroughly  apply  a  definition. 

The  tests  of  this  group  especially  demanded  promptness  as 
well  as  accuracy ;  in  fact,  it  is  probable  that  too  little  time  was 
allowed  for  tests  number  15  and  16,  extreme  promptness  and 
accuracy  as  a  result  being  better  measured  by  them  than  accuracy 
alone.  Judged  by  the  number  finishing  the  work  before  the 
signal,  time  enough  was  given  to  each  of  the  other  tests  to 
secure  accurate  results. 


TAB 

LE  XII 

Test  i6a 

Test  15 

Gain 

Test  15 

Test i6b 

Gain 

Room     I. 

6.88 

9.57 

2.69 

9-57 

7.46 

—2.  II 

Room  II. 

5.84 

8.89 

3-05 

8.89 

10.16 

1.27 

As  shown  in  Table  XII  Room  I  with  formal  grammar  gained 
.36  less  than  Room  II  without  it;  without  formal  grammar  it 
gained  3.38  less  than  Room  II  with  it.  When  each  is  compared 
with  itself  Room  I  gained  4.80  less  without  formal  grainmar 
than  with  it;  Room  II,  1.78  less  with  it  than  without  it.  Thus 
from  these  figures  no  claim  can  fairly  be  made  for  the  disciplinary 
value  of  the  subject. 

TABLE  XIII 


Test  i8a 

Test  17 

Gain 

Test  17 

Test  i8b 

Gain 

Room     I. 

5.68 

5.21 

—■47 

5.21 

7.22 

2.01 

Room  II. 

5-20 

6.32 

1. 12 

6.32 

7.00 

.68 

In  Table  XIII  the  gain  for  the  room  with  formal  grammar 
is  less  in  each  case,  by  1.57  and  1.33.  Without  formal  grammar 
Room  I  gained  2.48  more  than  with  it;  Room  11,  .44  more.  The 
evidence  here  is  distinctly  against  any  positive  transfer. 


TABLE  XIV 

Test  20a 

Test  19        Gain 

Test  19 

Test  20b 

Gain 

Room     I. 

1.08 

■59              ^49 

•  59 

4.26 

3.67 

Room  II. 

1.96 

—  .93        —2.89 

—  ■93 

1.80 

2.73 

313]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  63 

In  Table  XIV  Room  I  with  formal  grammar  gains  .49  while 
Room  II  without  it  loses  2.89 ;  when  the  conditions  are  reversed 
Room  I  gains  3.67;  Room  II,  2.73.  When  each  is  compared 
with  itself  we  see  that  Room  I  gains  3.18  more  without  formal 
grammar  than  with  it,  while  Room  II  gains  5.62  less.  Here  the 
evidence  is  such  as  would  result  by  chance:  one-half  favors 
transfer,  the  other  half  denies  it. 


TABLE  XV 

Test  22a 

Test  21        Gain 

Test  21 

Test  22h 

Gain 

Room     I. 
Room  II. 

1.72 
2.81 

3.14           1.42 
3.17              -36 

3.14 
3.17 

5.84 
6.41 

2.70 
3-24 

Table  XV  shows  that  with  formal  grammar  Room  I  gained 
202  per  cent  more  than  Room  II  without  it,  and  that  Room  II 
with  formal  grammar  gained  20  per  cent  more  than  Room  I 
without  it.  Compared  with  itself  Room  I  gained  90  per  cent 
more  without  formal  grammar  than  with  it,  while  Room  II 
gained  547  per  cent  more  with  formal  grammar  than  without 
it.  Here  the  children  did  distinctly  better  after  formal 
grammar. 

On  account  of  the  subject-matter,  Tests  23  and  24  were  not 
given  at  the  first  testing  period.  The  results  at  the  second  and 
third  periods  are  shown  in  Table  XVI. 

TABLE  XVI 

Test  24a      Test  24b        Gain 


Test  23a 

Test  23b 

Gain 

Room    I. 

—■47 

.81 

1.28 

Room  II. 

.59 

.82 

■23 

-2.17      —1.24  .93 

-2.76       —  .91  I. S3 

After  three  months  of  formal  grammar  Room  I  made  scores 
of  — .47  and  — 2.17;  then  after  a  like  period  without  this 
training  it  raised  both  scores,  by  1.28  and  .93  respectively. 
V^ithout  formal  grammar  Room  II  made  scores  of  .59  and 
—  2.76;  with  it,  the  room  raised  both  scores,  by  .23  and  1.85 
respectively.  The  record  after  formal  grammar  is  not  creditable 
in  any  case,  the  best  record  for  number  23  being  .82  out  of  a 
possible  4.00  and  for  number  24  — .91  out  of  a  possible  4.00. 
The  evidence  regarding  transfer  is  negative;  the  same  results 
might  have  been  obtained  by  chance. 


64 


Teachers  College  Record 


[314 


For  fear  that  the  two  minutes  given  for  test  number  23  was 
too  short  a  time  for  the  children  to  thoroughly  apply  the 
definition,  Room  II,  having  just  completed  the  work  in  formal 
grammar,  was  given  another  trial  of  the  test.  After  reviewing 
the  principles  of  fully  analyzing  a  complex  definition  into  its 
details  and  of  making  specific  questions  that  would  prove  the 
application  of  each  detail,  the  children  used  for  practice  work 
test  number  21,  which  they  had  had  on  the  preceding  day.  When 
they  together  had  applied  the  definition  of  "  wealth  "  and  had 
discussed  their  errors  of  omission  and  of  commission,  they  were 
given  (for  the  third  time)  test  number  23.  At  this  trial  the 
children  were  allowed  all  the  time  they  wanted:  many  of  them 
were  through  framing  and  applying  their  questions  in  three 
minutes;  the  last  one  finished  in  twelve  minutes.  The  room 
score  was  1.18  out  of  a  possible  4.  The  curve  in  Figure  II  shows 
the  distribution  of  the  individual  scores. 


Figure 

II 

4 

5- 

jVt^T^  ir  zr- 

3 

1. 

of  JidLpils 

/ 

_1 

5-  */ 


3     ju  -  /    e  -hi 


Judging  by  these  results  no  one  can  maintain  that  such  training 
in  grammar  as  these  children  had  in  the  least  improves  their 
ability  to  thoroughly  apply  such  definitions  as  these.  Moreover, 
it  would  further  appear  that  the  demands  of  tests  23  and  24, 
which  are  frequent  in  formal  grammar  classes,  can  not  be 
satisfactorily  met  by  such  children  as  these  even  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions. 


Group  IV.    Ability  to  make  a  rule  or  definition. 

The  task  set  by  tests  number  25-26  proved  entirely  beyond 
children  of  this  age  and  maturity.     The  few  rules   attempted 


315]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  65 

were  so  incomplete  and  full  of  errors  that  no  indicative  record 
could  be  made.  A  record  was  begun  of  how  the  children  set 
to  work — whether  they  saw  the  likeness  and  difference  between 
the  two  groups  of  words — but  so  many  had  set  down  nothing  at 
all  that  this  was  abandoned.  The  only  conclusion  that  can  be 
drawn  from  this  test  is  that  children  such  as  were  tested  are 
not  brought  up  by  this  kind  and  amount  of  training  in  formal 
grammar  to  an  ability  to  make  the  rules  called  for. 

Group  V.     Ability  to  judge  reasons. 

The  children  considered  the  tests  in  this  group  very  easy,  most 
of  them  finishing  well  within  the  time  allowed.  The  fact, 
however,  that  some  individuals  will  see  for  an  occasional  reason 
a  substantial  justification  that  does  not  occur  to  others  makes 
the  conclusions  less  convincing  than  it  was  hoped  they  might 
be.  For  example,  the  nine  adults  who  prepared  scores  for  these 
tests,  gave  to  the  seventh  reason  of  test  number  27  ("  New 
York  has  elevated  railroads.")  the  following  credits:  — i,  — i, 
o,  — 3,  — 2,  —  I,  — 3,  2,  I,  any  one  of  which  might  in  a  way 
be  justified.  It  may  be  said  in  defense  of  the  tests,  however, 
that  children  are  less  likely  to  introduce  sophistication  into  the 
matter  than  are  adults.  This  is  proved  by  the  approximation  in 
the  April  tests,  numbers  28  and  30,  to  the  perfect  scores  13 
and   13. 

TABLE  XVII 

Test  28a        Test  27        Gain       Test  27       Test  28b        Gain 
Room    I.  5.77  8.17  2.40  8.17  11.35  3.18 

Room  II.  7.24  8.33  1.09  8.33  11.40  3.07 

In  Table  XVII  Room  I  with  formal  grammar  is  seen  to  have 
made  more  than  twice  as  much  gain  as  Room  II  without  it,  while 
Room  II  with  its  term  of  formal  grammar  makes  a  trifle  less 
gain  than  Room  I  without  it.  Compared  with  itself.  Room  I 
makes  a  better  gain  without  formal  grammar;  Room  II,  a  much 
better  gain  with  it. 

TABLE  XVIII 
Test  30a        Test  29        Gain       Test  29       Test  sob        Gain 
Room    I.  4.69  7-63  2. 94  7.63  9.81  2.18 

Room  II.  6.67  8.14  1.47  8.14  10.64  2.40 


66  Teachers  College  Record  [316 

In  Table  XVIII  each  room  makes  a  better  record  with  formal 
grammar  than  the  other  room  makes  without  it,  and  Hkewise 
a  better  record  than  itself  makes  without  it.  So  far  as  the  evi- 
dence in  these  two  tables  is  convincing,  the  formal  grammar 
training  manifests  some  transfer  in  six  out  of  eight  comparisons. 

Group  VI.     Ability  to  use  data. 

The  inability  of  children  to  select  from  a  mass  of  data  all 
that  they  need  and  no  more  is  strikingly  shown  in  the  small 
scores  of  Table  XIX.    The  maximum  possible  in  each  case  is  i. 

TABLE  XIX 

Test  32a        Test  31        Gain  Test  31  Test  32b  Gain 

Room    I.                  .06              .35             .29  .35              .12  —  .23 

Room  II.                  .08             .48              .40  .48             .19  —  .29 

So  far  as  the  small  scores  permit  of  a  conclusion,  it  would 
seem  that  the  room  with  formal  grammar  made  a  worse  score, 
by  .11  and  .06,  than  the  room  without  it.  Compared  with  itself, 
Room  I  did  better  by  .52  with  formal  grammar;  Room  II  did 
better  by  .69  without  it.  Thus  the  evidence  is  against  a  posi- 
tive transfer. 

Group  VII.     Ability  to  reason  in  arithmetic. 

As  the  children  were  not  asked  to  give  the  steps  by  which 
they  solved  these  problems,  the  scores  measure  reasoning  ability 
and  skill  in  computation  combined. 

TABLE  XX 

Test  33        Gain  Test  33  Test  34b  Gain 

.428            .128  .428            .638  .210 

.550            .158  .550            .692  .142 

By  Table  XX  it  is  seen  that  with  formal  grammar  Room  I 
gains  .128  while  Room  II  without  it  gains  .158;  conditions  being 
reversed,  Room  I  gains  .210,  Room  II,  .142,  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  gain  of  Room  II  during  the  second  period  is 
more  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Room  I  than  it  seems,  as  it  is  from 
a  higher  base.     Being  .122  points  above  Room  I  in  January, 


Test  34a 

Room    I. 

.300 

Room  II. 

.392 

317]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Disciplnie  67 

Room  II  in  April  has  gained  enough  skill  to  be  superior  by  .054 
points.  When  compared  with  itself,  each  room  is  seen  to  have 
gained  less  after  formal  grammar:  .128  vs.  .210  for  Room  I; 
.158  vs.  .142  for  Room  II. 

TABLE  XXI 

Test  36a        Test  35        Gain  Test  35  Test  36b  Gain 

Room    I.                .231            .603            .372  .603  .684  .081 

Room  II.                .360            .707            .347  .707  .573  —.134 

By  Table  XXI  the  evidence  is  exactly  balanced.  With  formal 
grammar  Room  I  gains  .025  more  than  Room  II  without  it; 
while  with  conditions  changed  Room  II  gains  .215  less  than 
Room  I.  When  compared  with  itself,  Room  I  is  seen  to  have 
gained  .291  more  with  than  without  formal  grammar  and  Room 
II  to  have  gained  .481  less. 

In  these  tables  six  comparisons  favor  the  room  having 
language  and  composition ;  only  two  favor  the  room  having 
formal  grammar. 

Group   VIII.     Ability  to  reason  syllogistically. 

In  this  group  of  tests  practically  all  the  children  finished  well 
within  the  time  allowed  and,  despite  many  fragmentary  answers, 
apparently  felt  well  satisfied  with  their  attempts.  It  was  notable 
that  very  few  of  the  children  ever  went  back  and  reviewed  their 
work.  It  was  unfortunate  that  the  children  were  not  asked 
specifically  to  indicate  which  syllogisms  were  sound,  for  a  blank 
after  a  sound  syllogism  may  have  resulted  from  a  feeling  of 
inability  rather  than  from  a  recognition  of  soundness, 

TABLE  XXII 

Test  38a        Test  37        Gain  Test  37  Test  38b  Gain 

Room    I.                 1.92            2.52              .60  2.52  3.00  .48 

Room  II.                 2. II            2.72              .61  2.72  2.75  .03 

After  the  first  practice  period  the  room  with  formal  grammar 
showed  practically  the  same  gain  as  the  other  (See  Table 
XXII)  ;  after  the  second  period,  a  gain  considerably  less.  Com- 
pared with  itself.  Room  I  gained  a  little  more  with  formal 
grammar  than  without ;  Room  II,  considerably  less. 


68  Teachers  College  Record  [318 


TABLE  XXIII 

Room     I. 
Room  II. 

Test  40a 
2.22 
2.66 

Test  39        Gain 
2.50             .28 
2.48        —  .18 

Test  39 
2.50 
2.48 

Test  40b 
2.56 
3.08 

Gain 
.06 
.60 

Here,  as  shown  in  Table  XXIII,  in  each  case  the  better  score 
is  made  by  the  room  having  had  formal  grammar,  whether  the 
comparison  is  made  of  one  room  with  the  other  or  of  one 
room  with  itself.  Judged  by  the  first  pair  of  tests  in  this  group, 
the  evidence  is  against  any  transfer;  judged  by  the  second  pair 
of  tests,  the  evidence  is  strongly  for  it. 

Group  IX.     Ability  to  detect  catches. 


TABLE  XXIV 

Test  42a 

Test  41        Gain 

Test  41 

Test  42b 

Gain 

I. 

3-13 

3-28             .15 

3.28 

4.05 

■  77 

II. 

3 -OS 

3.17                -12 

3-17 

3.85 

.68 

In  Table  XXIV  there  is  almost  no  difference  between  the 
scores  of  the  room  with  formal  grammar  and  those  of  the  room 
without  it.  When  each  room  is  compared  with  itself,  one 
comparison  favors  fonnal  grammar;  the  other  does  not.  Thus 
there  is  no  evidence  of  transfer. 

Group  X.  Ability  to  make  prompt  and  accurate  associations 
and  to  follow  directions. 
The  scores  in  the  first  two  of  the  following  tables  will  in 
some  degree  indicate  what  improvement  may  result  from  normal 
growth,  practice  due  to  taking  tests,  and  the  repetition  of  certain 
tests  after  an  interval  of  six  months.  A  comparison  of  these 
scores,  which  are  presumably  not  influenced  to  an  appreciable 
extent  by  any  individual  subject  in  the  curriculum,  with  those 
resulting  from  tests  1-42.  will  show  in  these  latter  no  positive 
change  that  can  be  due  to  the  presence  of  formal  grammar. 

TABLE  XXV 

Test  44a  Test  43  Gain  (Percent)  Test  43  Test  44b  Gain  (Percent) 

Room     I.     13.04    15-22      2.18      (17%)       15-22    17.00  1.78      (12%) 
Room    II.     13.29    16.15      2.86      (22%)       16.15    16.85        -70     (  4%) 


319]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  69 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  initial  scores  differ  by  only  .25  points, 
the  second  by  .93,  and  the  final  by  .15 ;  while  the  per  cents  of  gain 
range  between  4  and  22. 

TABLE  XXVI 

Test  46a  Test  45  Gain  {Per  cent)  Test  43  Test  46b  Gain  (Per  cent) 

Room      I.      8.00      8.39        .29        (s%)         8.39     10.79  2.40      (29%) 

Room    II.      7.81      7.39    —.42         (1%)         7-39    10.98  3.59      {49%) 

Here  the  initial  scores  differ  by  .50  points,  the  second  by 
1. 00,  and  the  final  by  .19;  while  the  per  cents  of  gain  range 
between  —  i  and  49. 

Tests  number  47-49,  which  were  a  part  of  the  original  series, 
will  serve  in  some  degree  to  measure  the  general  abilities  of  the 
children  in  the  two  rooms.  Also,  as  Test  47  was  given  first 
in  the  original  series  and  followed  immediately  by  Test  48,  the 
difference  between  their  scores  indicates  a  gain  due  almost 
entirely  to  practice  in  taking  tests. 


TABLE  XXVII 

Gain  of 

Test  47 

Test  48 

48  over  47 

Test  49 

Room     I. 

10.87 

12.6s 

16% 

12.04 

Room  II. 

9.92 

12.87 

30% 

12.41 

In  this  test  there  is  a  maximum  difference  between  the  two 
rooms  of  .95 ;  when  the  three  scores  of  each  room  are  added  the 
totals  differ  by  only  .36,  showing  that,  so  far  as  these  tests  are 
adequate  measures,  the  rooms  differ  little  in  their  ability  to 
understand  and  to  follow  directions. 

Group  XL  Ability  to  correct  language  errors  and  to  point  off 
sentences. 
The  tests  in  this  group  were  not  given  in  October;  conse- 
quently the  double  check  previously  used  does  not  appear  as  in 
the  other  tests  of  the  series.  Inasmuch  as  numbers  50-53  were 
arranged  without  any  reference  to  the  Horace  Mann  School  or 
any  other  curriculum,  it  was  only  by  chance  that  the  children 
studied  the  particular  details  included  therein  during  the  non- 
grammar  training;  it  is  certain  that  they  had  no  formal  instruc- 


70  Teachers  College  Record  [320 

tion  or  drill  in  them  during  the  three  months  in  which  formal 
grammar  was  taught.  Consequently,  any  improvement  in  the 
score  after  the  period  in  which  the  children  had  no  formal 
language  training  must  be  due  to  increased  familiarity  with  the 
tests  (they  were  repeated  at  the  end  of  three  months),  or  to 
incidental  instruction  elsewhere. 


TABLE  XXVIII 

Test  50a               Test  ^oh 

Gain 

Room     I. 

.228                      .227 

—  .001 

Room  II. 

.177                       -240 

.063 

Table  XXVIII  shows  Room  I  with  a  positive  initial 
advantage,  due  perhaps  to  the  chance  selection  of  details  for 
the  test,  perhaps  to  incidental  instruction,  or  perhaps  to  better 
training  during  the  previous  school  life.  It  certainly  could  not 
have  been  due  to  any  training  received  through  formal  grammar, 
for  the  application  of  grammar  to  language  was  intentionally 
omitted  throughout  the  three-month  period.  As  compared  with 
a  possible  score  of  i,  the  records  at  best  are  poor.  The  situation 
is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  after  three  months  with  formal 
grammar  Room  II  made  a  substantial  gain,  while  Room  I  with 
language  and  composition  just  holds  its  own. 


TABLE  XXIX 

Test  51a               Test  51b 

Gain 

—  .70                  —.04 

.66 

—1.86                  —.28 

1.58 

Room     I. 
Room  II. 

A  similar  situation  is  presented  by  Table  XXIX.  After 
training  in  formal  grammar  Room  I  makes  a  better  initial  score ; 
but  at  the  end  of  the  second  period,  during  which  it  had  language 
and  composition,  it  makes  a  gain  of  .92  less  than  Room  II  which 
has  been  instructed  not  in  language  or  composition  but  in  formal 
grammar. 

TABLE  XXX 
Test  52a  Test  32b  Gain 

Room    I.  2.50  4.88  2.38 

Room  II.  2.61  4.77  2.16 


32i]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  71 

The  results  as  represented  in  Table  XXX  are  such  as  one 
might  expect.  Room  II  without  formal  grammar  makes  a 
slightly  higher  initial  score;  then  Room  I  without  formal  gram- 
mar makes  a  gain  10  per  cent  larger  than  Room  II  with  it.  A 
priori  this  test  would  hardly  seem  as  likely  to  get  correct  results 
as  the  two  preceding  ones :  they  have  a  larger  number  of  errors 
presented  in  isolated  sentences  of  the  text-book  type,  while  this 
test  has  eight  errors,  five  of  which  are  too  difficult  to  be  detected 
in  context  by  half  of  the  pupils.  This  is  the  type  of  test,  how- 
ever, that  most  truly  ascertains  ability  to  correct  language  errors 
in  actual  life  situations. 

TABLE  XXXI 

Test  53  la            Test  33  lb  Gain  Test  53 II 

Room     I.                       14-43                     17.08  2.65  .96 

Room  II.                       13.55                     16. rr  3.22  .78 

Table  XXXI  again  presents  unexpected  results.  After  formal 
grammar  Room  I  presents  a  higher  score  than  Room  II  with 
language  and  grammar;  and  Room  II  with  formal  grammar 
makes  a  gain  of  3.22,  to  2.65  made  by  Room  I  with  language 
and  composition.  In  April  the  second  part  of  the  test  was 
presented.  Room  I  with  language  and  composition  making  a 
score  of  .96  (out  of  a  possible  4.00),  while  Room  II  with  formal 
grammar  made  a  score  of  .78. 

Group  XII. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  teacher  that  Room  II  learned  more  of 
formal  grammar  than  Room  I,  an  opinion  confirmed  by  the  test. 
See  Table  XXXII.^^  Though  the  same  material  was  presented 
to  both  rooms,  it  was  given  more  drill  in  Room  II  and  hence  was 
remembered  better  for  the  examination.  It  is  a  question,  how- 
ever, whether  Room  II  had  as  much  better  an  understanding 
of  the  principles  taught  as  the  score  would  indicate. 

TABLE  XXXII 

Test  54 
Room     I.  29.09 

Room  II.  44-76 


For  a  distribution  of  the  individual  scores  see  Table  V,  page  57. 


PART  IV 
THE  TESTS  IN  OTHER  SCHOOLS 

In  order  that  some  data  might  be  obtained  regarding  the  effect 
of  grammar,  formal  and  informal,  as  it  is  ordinarily  taught,  the 
tests  previously  described  were  given  to  pupils  in  five  public 
schools  in  Illinois.  These  towns  were  selected  so  as  to  afford 
as  fair  contrasts  as  possible.  According  to  general  tradition  and 
statements  by  the  respective  superintendents,  schools  A  and  C 
emphasize  formal  grammar  in  Grade  VII;  schools  B  and  D  do 
not.  There  is  no  information  in  possession  of  the  experimenter 
as  to  exactly  what  grammar  is  taught  in  each  school;  it  is 
probable  that  the  difference  between  the  kinds  is  largely  a  matter 
of  emphasis.  These  schools  were  selected  because  of  the  facts 
that  they  are  only  a  few  miles  apart,  that  they  are  good  public 
schools,  and  that  according  to  general  understanding  they  repre- 
sent schools  that  emphasize  different  types  of  grammar.  No 
attempt  was  made  to  compare  with  any  scientific  exactness  pupils, 
teachers,  courses  of  study,  or  any  other  elements  involved.  The 
situation  was  taken  as  it  was  found. 

In  a  departmental  school  of  the  fifth  city  the  conditions  are 
somewhat  more  distinct.  Here  the  tests  were  given  to  Grade 
VII B,  which  has  language  and  composition,  and  to  Grade 
VII  A,  which  with  the  guidance  of  an  excellent  text  has  formal 
grammar  for  a  half  year.  These  rooms  will  be  referred  to  in 
this  report  as  school  E  and  school  F  respectively. 

That  there  might  be  some  data  concerning  the  improvement 
due  merely  to  general  development  and  practice  effect,  the  tests 
were  given  also  to  groups  of  children  from  Grade  VI  in  schools 
A  and  B  and  to  children  from  Grade  VI  A  in  schools  C  and  D, 
promotions  being  made  annually  in  the  first  two  schools,  semi- 
annually in  the  second. 

The  tests  were  given  also  to  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  of 
the  practice  schools  in  two  state  normal  schools,  one  in  Illinois, 

72  [322 


323]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  73 

the  other  in  Indiana.^  Both  teach  formal  grammar  with  a  text 
in  the  seventh  grade.  They  will  be  referred  to  in  this  experiment 
as  schools  G  and  H. 

With  the  exception  to  be  noted  below  the  first  tests  were  given 
in  September,  1913,  personally  by  the  experimenter;  the  second 
by  Mr.  H.  O.  Rugg  and  Mr.  E.  E.  Lewis,  both  trained  in 
scientific  method,  following  explicit  and  detailed  written  instruc- 
tions. Mr.  Rugg  gave  the  tests  to  schools  A,  B,  E,  and  F 
between  January  28  and  February  8,  1913 ;  Mr.  Lewis  gave  the 
tests  to  schools  C,  D,  and  G  in  March.  Dr.  C.  H.  Bean  gave  all 
the  tests  to  school  H,  the  first  ones  in  October,  the  second  in 
April.  In  schools  C,  D,  E,  F,  and  G  the  odd  numbered  tests 
were  given  first;  in  schools  A,  B,  and  H,  the  even  numbered 
ones.  Care  was  taken  only  to  have  the  time  allowed  for  each 
test  the  same  for  the  schools  contrasted.  For  all  these  reasons 
it  can  not  be  assumed  that  any  school  can  be  compared  with 
any  other  except  the  one  paired  with  it. 

Of  course  no  conclusions  scientifically  accurate  were  hoped 
for.  But  it  was  thought  wise  to  give  the  tests  to  such  schools 
as  were  ordinarily  cited  in  discussions  of  formal  grammar  in 
order  that  there  might  be  ascertained  just  what  differences 
exist.  With  so  many  pupils  there  is  sure  to  be  a  cancelation 
of  many  chance  elements,  and  if  the  majority  of  the  results 
supported  those  found  at  the  Horace  Mann  School,  these  latter 
would  be  strengthened  just  so  much.  In  these  six  schools  there 
were  examined  in  both  series  of  tests  295  children  distributed  as 
follows : 


^  In  addition,  it  was  planned  to  conduct  the  experiment  with  the  more 
mature  students  of  normal  schools,  but  a  series  of  disappointments  made 
it  impossible  to  secure  enough  data  to  warrant  any  report. 


74  Teachers  College  Record  [324 


Wades 

Numbers 

VII 

22 

VP 

VII 

20 

VI 

36 

VIIB 

36 

VIA 

12 

VIIB 

19 

VIA 

22 

VIIA 

22 

VIIB 

22 

VII 

30 

VI 

17 

VII 

18 

VI 

19 

Schools 
A 

B 

C 

D 

E 
F 
G 


29s 

More  than  400  children  took  the  first  series  of  tests,  but  because 
of  absences,  transfers,  etc.,  about  one-third  were  not  tested  a 
second  time.  For  one  reason  and  another  a  few  tests  were  not 
given  in  Grade  VI  of  school  C  and  in  both  grades  of  school  H. 

Results 

(Throughout  the  following  explanations  the  reader  must  remember  that 
the  upper  grade  in  schools  A,  C,  E,  G,  and  H  were  taught  formal  gram- 
mar and  that  the  other  grades  were  not.  In  the  tables  all  scores  and 
gains  after  formal  grammar  are  in  italics.) 

Group  I.     Ability  to  see  likenesses  and  differences. 

As  measured  by  tests  i  and  4  the  schools  trained  in  formal 
grammar  with  one  exception  make  less  improvement  in  seeing 
likenesses  and  differences  than  do  the  corresponding  schools 
with  language  and  composition.  (See  Table  XXXIII)  School 
A  loses  what  ability  it  showed  before  training,  while  school  B 
gained  more  than  200  per  cent;  school  C  gained  less  than  half 
as  much  as  school  D ;  and  G  and  H  are  poorer  in  five  of  the 
six  possible  comparisons  with  the  corresponding  grades  having 
no  formal  grammar.  On  the  contrary,  F  with  an  abnormal  initial 
score  shows  an  actual  loss,  while  E  gained  4.72.     In  the  three 


'  Owing  to  a  readjustment  during  the  year  all  the  children  in  this  room 
were  transferred  to  another  building  and  so  could  not  be  tested  in  January. 


325]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  75 

cases  in  which  Grade  VI  of  the  school  giving  formal  grammar 
was  tested,  it  twice  showed  a  better  record  than  its  upper  grade. 
These  results  corroborate  those  found  in  the  Horace  Mann 
School. 

TABLE  XXXIII 


School 

Test  I 

Test  4 

Gain 

Test  4 

Test  I 

Gain 

A         VII 

2.73 

0 

-2.73+ 

B         VII 

2.14 

6.74 

4.60 

VI 

4.06 

3-34 

—.72 

C         VIIB 

1. 54 

4.07 

2.53 

VIA 

0 

1.67 

1.67+ 

D        VIIB 

0 

5.26 

5.26+ 

VIA 

0 

2.86 

2.86+ 

E        VIIA 

1.90 

6.62 

4-72 

F         VIIB 

6.36 

S.90 

—.46 

G        VII 

6.20 

3.48 

—2.72 

VI 

1. 41 

2.59 

1. 17 

H       VII 

.95 

3.76 

2.81 

VI 

3.6s 

7.06 

3.41 

TABLE  XXXIV 

School 

Test; 

Tests 

Gain 

Test  8 

Test  7 

Gain 

A        VII 

1.82 

1.98 

.16 

B         VII 

2.56 

2.98 

.42 

VI 

.94 

2.10 

1. 16 

C        VIIB 

2.90 

3.10 

.20 

VIA 

.... 

D        VIIB 

2.74 

3.06 

.32 

VIA 

2.95 

3.14 

.19 

E        VIIA 

1.98 

2.32 

•  34 

F         VIIB 

2.25 

•95 

—1.30 

G        VII 

2.30 

1.92 

-.38 

VI 

1.38 

1.50 

.12 

H        VII 

2.00 

2.07 

■  07 

VI 

2.88 

2.32 

-.56 

Tests  7  and  8  show  results  (See  Table  XXXIV)  which, 
although  slightly  opposing  formal  grammar,  might  have  been 
obtained  by  chance.  Schools  A,  B,  C,  and  D  show  slight  gains, 
those  of  B  and  D  being  larger ;  E  shows  a  small  gain  while  F  is 
losing,  but  the  situation  in  G  is  just  the  reverse;  H  shows  a 
trifling  gain  in  Grade  VII,  but  a  loss  in  Grade  VI.  Comparing 
the  sixth  grades  alone  (VII  B  of  school  F),  we  find  gains  of  1.16, 


76 


TeacJiers  College  Record 


[326 


.19,  and  .12,  and  losses  of  1.30  and  .56.  These  results,  wholly 
unaffected  by  formal  grammar,  show  how  insignificant  the  influ- 
ence of  the  subject  was  on  the  grades  in  which  it  was  taught. 
These  grades  show  gains  of  .16,  .20,  .34,  — .38,  and  .07;  the  two 
seventh  grades  without  formal  grammar  show  gains  of  .42  and 
.32.  These  results  differ  from  those  of  the  Horace  IMann  School. 
There  the  tests  showed  a  decided  advantage  for  the  rooms 
having  formal  grammar. 

The  results  of  Tests  9-10,  as  presented  in  Table  XXXV, 
favor  formal  grammar.  School  A  gains  1.57  while  B  is  gaining 
only  .05;  C  loses  .28  while  D  is  losing  .78;  and  E  loses  .19  while 
F  is  losing  .43.  G  gains  .30,  but  H  at  the  same  time  loses  at 
least  .74.  These  tests  show  results  almost  as  favorable  to  formal 
grammar  as  they  did  in  the  Horace  ]\Iann  School. 


TABLE  XXXV 

School 

Test  9 

Test  10 

Gain 

Test  10 

Test  9 

Gain 

A 

VII 

.67 

2.24 

1-57 

B 

VII 

.65 

.70 

.05 

VI 

.22 

.20 

—  .02 

C 

VIIB 
VIA 

.98 

.70 

—  .28 

D 

VIIB 

1-47 

.68 

—  •79 

VIA 

.30 

.38 

.08 

E 

VIIA 

.35 

.16 

—.19 

F 

VIIB 

1.26 

.83 

—  .43 

G 

VII 

.70 

1. 00 

■  SO 

VI 

.42 

.76 

•34 

H 

VII 

.74 

0 

-.74+ 

VI 

•  53 

.84 

•31 

The  tests  of  this  group  show,  then,  one  comparison  unfavorable 
to  formal  grammar,  one  apparently  the  result  of  chance,  and  one 
somewhat  favorable.  Thus  they  do  not  confirm  the  advantage 
that  formal  grammar  seemed  to  have  in  improving  the  ability  of 
the  children  at  the  Horace  :\Iann  School  to  see  likenesses  and 
differences— an  advantage  more  apparent  than  real,  it  may  be 
added,  for  when  the  amounts  of  gain  in  the  major  experiment  are 
compared  with  those  in  tests  43-48,  which  hardly  can  be  affected 
by  school  training,  they  utterly  fail  to  be  convincing. 


327] 


Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 


77 


Group  II.     Ability  to  judge  a  definition. 

As  shown  in  Table  XXXVI  school  A  makes  a  decisive  gain 
over  that  of  B,  though  still  failing  by  nearly  30  per  cent  to  reach 
B's  score;  C  while  maintaining  a  superior  score  fails  to  gain 
as  much  as  D;  and  E  gains  i.oi  while  F  is  actually  losing 
nearly  three  times  as  much.     G  gains  nearly  5  per  cent. 


TABLE  XXXVI 


School 


VII 
VII 

VI 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIA 
VIIB 
VII 

VI 
VII 

VI 


School 
VII 
.    VII 
VI 


VIIB 

VIA 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIA 
VIIB 
VII 

VI 
VII 

VI 


Test  II       Test  12 


I. II 

1-33 

—1.22 

-2.48 

8.70 

7.91 

10.67 

9.00 


1.83 

1-47 
1.62 
1.30 
1.27 
1.67 
1-53 


6.16 

1.25 

5.85 
3-95 
9.71 
5-00 
II.  1 5 
1.88 


Gain       Test  12 
2.44 
14.19 
9.00 
5-05 
—  .08 
7.07 
6.43 

I.OI 

— 2.91 

.48 
—7.12 


Test  13       Test  14 


TABLE  XXXVII 

Gain       Test  14 

.91 

2.30 

i.S6 


1-33 

^■47 
.67 
1.76 
2.00 
1. 91 
2.35 


—  ■50 

0 
—•95 
.46 

■  73 

■  24 


.63 
300 


Test  II 

10.95 
14. II 
10.69 


Test  13 
1.64 
2.53 
1.72 


1.88 
2.35 


Gain 

8.51 

—  .08 

1.69 


Gain 

•73 
.23 
.16 


i^25 
-.65 


Table  XXXVII  shows  that  A  gained  decisively  over  B, 
though  again  failing  to  equal  even  the  latter's  initial  score,  and 
that  C  and  E  fail  to  make  as  good  scores  as  D  and  F.  The 
seventh  grade  of  G  gains  only  30  per  cent  as  much  as  the  sixth, 


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[32s 


while  in  school  H  the  sixth  grade  loses  50  per  cent  as  much 
as  the  seventh  grade  gains.  Like  the  results  in  the  Horace 
Mann  School  these  are  neutral;  that  is,  they  show  no  advantage 
for  formal  grammar.  This  means,  of  course,  that  the  claims  for 
formal  grammar  are  not  substantiated. 

Group  III.     Ability  to  thoroughly  apply  a  definition. 

The  results  of  tests  15  and  16,  as  presented  in  Table 
XXXVIII,  are  decisively  in  favor  of  formal  grammar.  School 
A  gains  6.86  while  B  is  losing  2.04;  C  gains  1.78  while  D  is 
gaining  2.53  from  a  much  smaller  initial  score;  and  E  has  a  loss 
of  only  2.95  to  F's  8.02.  The  gains  by  G  and  H  of  2.63  and 
11.33  respectively  are  also  decisive.  But  against  all  this,  atten- 
tion must  be  directed  to  the  fact  that,  as  was  remarked  on 
page  62,  these  tests  probably  measure  extreme  promptness  and 
accuracy  better  than  accuracy  alone,  and  to  the  further  fact 
that  Grade  VI  of  school  H  without  formal  grammar  made  the 
second  highest  gain  of  all.  This  latter  fact  causes  a  strong 
assumption  that  other  causes  are  far  more  potent  here  than  any 
school  subject.  This  assumption  is  thoroughly  concordant  with 
the  results  of  these  tests  in  the  Horace  Mann  School. 

TABLE  XXXVIII 


School 

Test  15 

Test  16 

Gain 

Test  16 

Test  15 

Gain 

A        VII 

o(exact)(5.5(5 

6.86 

B         VII 

6.88 

4.84 

—2.04 

VI 

3-42 

4.17 

.75 

C         VIIB 

6.22 

7.70 

1.78 

VIA 

7.Z2, 

.80 

-6.53 

D        VIIB 

2. II 

4.64 

2.53 

VIA 

2.25 

3-34 

1.09 

E        VIIA 

4-95 

2.00 

—2.95 

F         VIIB 

7.64 

-.38 

—8.02 

G         VII 

3-47 

6.10 

2.63 

VI 

4-59 

4.50 

—  .09 

H        VII 

-7.58 

3-75 

11-33 

VI 

1. 18 

11.65 

10.47 

Tests  17  and  18.  dealing  with  the  same  kind  of  material 
as  the  preceding  pair  of  tests,  resulted  in  an  advantage  for 
schools  B  and  F  (See  Table  IXL),  which  made  scores  of  — .42 
and  1.90  against  those  of  —  1.50  and  1.46  by  A  and  E  respec- 


329]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  79 

lively.  Schools  C  and  D  are  essentially  tied,  with  scores  of 
— .40  and  — .37.  School  G  lost  1.83;  school  H  gained  .16.  It 
is  notable  that  the  sixth  grade  in  every  case  but  one  had  a 
considerably  lower  initial  score  but  gained  enough  in  two  cases 
almost  to  equal  and  in  the  other  two  to  surpass  the  score  of  its 
corresponding  upper  grade.  All  this  makes  it  appear  that 
improvement  was  not  due  to  formal  grammar.  This  conclusion 
is  in  harmony  with  the  results  in  the  Horace  Mann  School. 


TABLE  IXL 

School 

Test  17 

Test  18 

Gain 

Test  18 

Test  17 

Gain 

A 

VII 

7.41 

5-91 

—1.50 

B 

VII 

7.21 

6.79 

—.42 

VI 

S^oo 

6.38 

i^38 

C 

VIIB 

6.06 

5.66 

—.40 

VIA 

5-17 

6.40 

1.23 

D 

VIIB 

6.58 

6.21 

—  •37 

VIA 

3- 10 

5^53 

2^43 

E 

VIIA 

3.30 

4.76 

1.46 

F 

VIIB 

3-91 

5. 81 

1.90 

G 

VII 

6.83 

5-00 

-1.83 

VI 

4.17 

S.77 

1.60 

H 

VII 

3^84 

4.00 

.16 

VI 

5.06 

4-94 

— .12 

TABLE  XL 

Schoool 

Test  19 

Test  20 

Gain 

Test  20 

Test  19 

Gain 

A 

VII 

•32 

—1. 00 

—.68 

B 

VII 

•  75 

—.72 

—1.47 

VI 

—1.72 

^.11 

1. 61 

C 

VIIB 

—  •03 

— .22 

—.19 

VIA 

•25 

—2.20 

—2.45 

D 

VIIB 

—•53 

.05 

•58 

VIA 

—1. 14 

.38 

1-52 

E 

VIIA 

—  .80 

o( exact)  .80 

F 

VIIB 

—1. 14 

—.Z2, 

.81 

G 

VII 

—1.03 

■  17 

1.20 

VI 

—  •94 

o(exact)  .94 

H 

VII 

-.58 

—1. 1 8 

—.60 

VI 

1.47 

1.76 

.29 

Table  XL  and  Table   XLI   show  the  results  of   four  very 
similar  tests.     In  the  former  it  is  shown  that  A  loses  .68  while 


8o  Teachers  College  Record  [330 

B  is  losing  1.47;  that  C  loses  .19  while  D  is  gaining  .58;  and 
that  E  and  F  gain  practically  the  same,  .80  and  .81.  School 
G  gains  1.20  while  school  H,  equally  emphasizing  formal 
grammar,  loses  .60.  These  results  could  hardly  be  more  equally 
divided  had  they  been  derived  by  chance ;  moreover,  they  exactly 
harmonize  with  the  results  in  the  Horace  Mann  School,  where 
half  favored  one  side,  and  half  the  other. 


TABLE  XLI 

School 

Test  21 

Test  22 

Gain 

Test  22 

Test  21 

Gain 

A 

VII 

-.64 

2.85 

3-49 

B 

VII 

—.05 

7.50 

7-55 

VI 

.11 

3-99 

3.88 

C 

VIIB 

3-51 

5-93 

2.42 

VIA 

.24 

3.60 

3.36 

D 

VIIB 

I. II 

5-59 

4.48 

VIA 

1.44 

5-19 

3-75 

E 

VIIA 

1-35 

4-4^ 

S.06 

F 

VIIB 

6.54 

4.76 

-1.78 

G 

VII 

—•30 

5-54 

5.84 

VI 

4-59 

5-75 

.16 

H 

VII 
VI 

In  Table  XLI  school  A  has  a  gain  of  3.49,  in  contrast  with 
B's  7-55 ;  C  gains  2.42  to  D's  4.48 ;  and  E,  instead  of  tying  F, 
gains  3.06  while  the  latter  is  losing  1.78.  These  reversals  are 
even  stronger  arguments  than  the  practical  balance  in  each  set 
of  comparisons  against  a  transfer  from  formal  grammar;  for 
the  tests  being  so  similar,  an  influence  in  one  should  be  an 
influence  in  another.  The  gain  in  the  sixth  grades,  comparable 
to  that  in  the  seventh,  is  additional  argument  against  a  specific 
transfer.  In  the  Horace  Mann  School  the  scores  for  the  rooms 
having  formal  grammar  were  in  three  cases  out  of  four  dis- 
tinctly better. 

Table  XLII  shows  that  in  test  23  there  was  a  distribution  of 
scores  that  might  have  been  effected  by  chance.  School  A  with 
— .68  was  better  than  B  with  its  — 1.25;  C  with  .19  was 
approximately  equal  to  D  with  its  .21 ;  and  E  with  — 2.41  was 
decidedly  inferior  to  F  with  its  .10.  Schools  G  and  H  with 
similar  training   scored  — 1.32   and   .53    respectively.     These 


33 1]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  8i 

scores  show  that  the  children  after  three  to  five  months  of  formal 
grammar  did  not  apply  even  a  grammar  definition,  if  it  be  an 
unusual  one,  any  better  than  the  children  who  have  not  had  that 
training. 

In  test  24  the  distribution  is  even  more  unfavorable  to  the 
schools  with  formal  grammar.  School  A  with  —  3.23  is  inferior 
to  B  with  its  — .50;  C  with  — 2.30  is  inferior  to  D 
with  its  — 1.37;  and  E  with  — 4.59  is  inferior  to  F  with 
its  — ^2.14.  G  and  H  both  exhibit  strongly  negative  scores, 
—  2.00  and  — 3-71-  In  schools  D  and  H  the  sixth  grade  makes 
a  better  score  than  the  seventh. 


TABLE  XLII 

School 

Test  23 

Test  24 

A     VII 

—.68 

—3.22 

B     VII 

—  1-25 

—•50 

VI 

—1.44 

—4.09 

C     VIIB 

■19 

—2.30 

VIA 

—2.20 

—4.80 

D     VIIB 

.21 

—1.37 

VIA 

-1.67 

—.86 

E     VIIA 

—2.41 

—4-59 

F     VIIB 

.10 

—2.14 

G     VII 

—1.32 

—2.00 

VI 

0 

-5.06 

H     VII 

.53 

—3-71 

VI 

-1.69 

—1-53 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  training  received  in  formal  gram- 
mar really  hinders  high  scoring  in  these  tests  which  present  for 
application  definitions  that  are  unsound  and  different  from  the 
ones  given  in  the  grammar  texts.  This  is  doubtless  true;  but  the 
children  were  warned  to  apply  each  definition  exactly,  whether 
they  thought  it  a  good  one  or  not.  This  is  just  the  ability  that 
formal  grammar  most  strongly  asserts  that  it  develops.  The 
objection  is  really,  moreover,  in  a  way  an  argument  for  the 
perfectly  sound  principle  that  training  should  develop  specific 
utilitarian  connections. 

The  scores  of  the  schools  having  formal  grammar  make  a 
poor  showing  not  only  relatively  but  absolutely  as  well.  The 
possible   score   in   each   test   is   4.     It   seems  that   children  of 


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[332 


thirteen  years  are  really  too  immature  to  learn  through  ordinary 
school  work  to  thoroughly  apply  for  themselves  unfamiliar 
definitions.  All  these  conclusions  are  in  complete  harmony  with 
those  resulting  from  the  tests  in  the  Horace  Mann  School;  the 
evidence  is  against  a  transfer. 

Group  IV.     Ability  to  make  a  rule  or  definition. 

As  in  the  Horace  Mann  School  this  test  proved  too  difficult 
for  seventh  grade  children.  Only  in  schools  A  and  B  were  any 
positive  scores  at  all  made.  In  test  26  school  A  scored  .05 ;  in 
test  25  A  scored  .27,  and  B  scored  .40.  Of  course  from  so  few 
data  the  only  safe  conclusion  is  that  after  the  training  received 
in  formal  grammar  the  children  did  not  possess  the  ability  to 
make  the  rules  required  by  these  tests. 

Group  V.    Ability  to  judge  reasons. 

The  results  of  the  tests  of  the  ability  to  judge  reasons,  as 
displayed  in  Tables  XLHI  and  XLIV,  are  almost  wholly  against 
any  transfer  from  formal  grammar  training.  School  A  with 
scores  of  — .36  and  —  3.41  is  inferior  to  B  with  its  .36  and 
—  1.72;  C  with  5.69  and  4.84  is  inferior  to  D  with  its  7.48  and 
7.32;  and  E  with  2.84  and  5.13  does  no  more  than  equal  F  with 
2.97  and   5.08.     The  sixth  grade  in  schools  G  and  H   makes 


TABLE  XLIII 

School 

Test  27 

Test  28 

Gain 

Test  28 

Test  27 

Gain 

A        VII 

7.27 

6.91 

-.36 

B         VII 

9.40 

9.76 

.36 

VI 

5. 83 

9.07 

3.24 

C        VIIB 

5-94 

11.63 

5.69 

VIA 

3 

3?, 

4.00 

.67 

D        VIIB 

2 

84 

10.32 

7.48 

VIA 

—I 

48 

8.62 

10.10 

E        VIIA 

5 

44 

8.28 

2.84 

F         VIIB 

5 

08 

8.05 

2.97 

G         VII 

6 

72 

7.62 

.90 

VI 

4 

59 

8.00 

3-41 

H        VII 

6.05 

2.16 

-3.89 

VI 

11.00 

II.  10 

.10 

333] 


Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 


83 


better  scores  in  Table  XLIII  (3.41  and  .10  compared  with  .90 
and  — 3-89)  than  the  seventh,  and  in  Table  XLIV  a  score  only 
slightly  inferior  (5.19  compared  with  5.35).  In  the  other 
schools  the  sixth  grade  surpasses  the  seventh  in  four  cases  out 
of  six.  Thus  neither  school  training  nor  the  slight  difference  in 
age  seems  to  make  any  material  difference.  Certainly  there  is 
no  evidence  that  formal  grammar  improves  the  ability  of 
children  to  judge  such  reasons  as  are  in  the  tests.  In  the 
Horace  Mann  School  the  results  were  somewhat  more  favorable 
to  the  theory  of  transfer. 


School 
VII 
VII 

VI 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIA 
VIIB 
VII 

VI 
VII 

VI 


TABLE  XLIV 
Test  29       Test  30  Gain       Test  30 


4-31 
2.83 
2.26 
—1.29 
3.10 
4.82 
4.07 
4-75 


9-15 
5-40 
9.58 
8.14 
8.23 
9.90 
9.42 
9-94 


9-37 
7-74 


Test  29 

5-41 
7.65 
5.89 


Gain 

-3-41 
-1.72 
-1.85 


Group  VI,    Ability  to  use  data. 

Table  XLV  presents  another  display  which,  so  far  as  the 
upper  grades  are  concerned,  might  have  been  secured  by  chance. 
School  A  gains  .13  while  B  is  gaining  .2y ;  C  loses  .18  while 
D  is  losing  at  least  .25 ;  and  E  and  F  are  practically  tied  with 
losses  of  .12  and  .13.  School  G  loses  .21  while  H  gains  .19. 
In  both  these  two  schools  Grade  VI  makes  the  better  final  score 
and  gain.  Thus  no  evidence  results  that  in  such  life-like 
situations  as  are  presented  in  tests  31  and  32  there  is  any 
improvement  caused  by  the  study  of  formal  grammar.  Neither 
was  there  any  such  evidence  from  the  tests  in  the  Horace  Mann 
School. 


84 


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TABLE  XLV 

School 

Test 

31 

Test  32 

Gain 

Test  32 

Test  31 

Gain 

A 

VII 

.10 

•  23 

•  13 

B 

VII 
VI 

.08 
.06 

.35 
■22, 

.27 
.17 

c 

VIIB 
VIA 

■22, 
.17 

.05 

—.18 

D 

VIIB 
VIA 

•25 
.11 

0 
.05 

—.25 
—  .06 

E 
F 

VIIA 
VIIB 

.20 
.26 

.08 
.13 

—  .12 
—.13 

G 

VII 
VI 

.10 

.12 
.14 

—.21 
.04 

H 

VII 
VI 

0 
.08 

.19 
•  47 

.19+ 
.39 

Group  VII.     Ability  to  reason  in  arithmetic. 

From  Table  XLVI  is  seen  that  school  A  actually  loses  .071 
while  B  is  gaining  .074  and  that  C  gains  .130  to  D's  .172,  but 
that  E  gains  .176  while  F  is  losing  .046.  When  the  actual 
scores  are  studied,  however,  it  is  evident  that  the  difference 
between  the  gain  of  A  over  B  is  the  one  really  significant,  for 
D  and  E  are  bringing  their  scores  from  an  inferiority  into  a 
practical  equality  with  those  of  C  and  F.  The  scores  of  G  and 
H  seem  not  to  be  very  indicative:  three  of  the  grades  from 
normal  bases  make  normal  improvement;  the  sixth  grade  of  H 
does  unusually  well  in  both  tests. 


TABLE  XLVI 

School 

Test  33       Test  34 

Gain 

Test  34 

Test  33 

Gain 

A        VII 

.571 

.500 

—  .071 

B         VII 

.620 

.694 

•  074 

VI 

•451 

.583 

.132 

C         VIIB 

.458 

588 

.130 

VIA 

.317 

480 

.163 

D        VIIB 

.368 

556 

.188 

VIA 

.247 

419 

.172 

E        VIIA 

.400 

516 

.ir6 

F         VIIB 

.636 

590 

—.046 

G        VII 

.293 

538 

.245 

VI 

.246 

312 

.066 

H        VII 

.390 

■540 

.150 

VI 

.588 

•717 

.129 

335] 


Forma   English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 


85 


From  Table  XLVII  the  schools  that  do  not  emphasize  formal 
grammar  show  not  only  greater  gains  but  also  larger  initial 
and,  with  one  exception,  final  scores.  In  both  tables  the  sixth 
grades,  with  two  exceptions,  show  smaller  scores  and  gains  than 
the  corresponding  grade  above. 

All  these  results  go  to  emphasize  those  found  at  the  Horace 
Mann  School,  that  the  influence  of  formal  grammar,  so  far  as 
that  is  the  different  factor  in  each  group  of  classes  compared, 
does  not  make  for  greater  improvement  in  the  ability  to  reason 
in  arithmetic. 


TABLE  XLVII 

School 

Test  35       Test  36          Gain 

Test  36 

Test  35 

Gain 

A        VII 

.481 

•  659 

.178 

B         VII 

.690 

.888 

.198 

VI 

.592 

.621 

.029 

C         VIIB 

.228 

607 

3^9 

VIA 

.191 

280 

089 

D        VIIB 

.316 

7S6 

440 

VIA 

.166 

790 

624 

E        VIIA 

•  450 

6^3 

073 

F         VIIB 

■  523 

600 

077 

G         VII 

.575 

608 

033 

VI 

•  324 

375 

051 

H        VII 

VI 

Group  VIII.     Ability   to   reason   syllogistically. 

In  Tables  XLVIII  and  IL  three  of  the  comparisons  show 
greater  gains  for  the  schools  emphasizing  formal  grammar  and 
three  show  less.  School  A  with  losses  of  .01  and  .49  is  superior 
to  B  with  its  losses  of  .28  and  .65;  C  with  its  gains  of  1.43 
and  .34  is  superior  in  the  first  comparison  and  inferior  in  the 
second  to  B  with  its  .74  and  i.oo;  and  E  with  gains  of  1.25  and 
.42  is  in  both  cases  inferior  to  F,  which  gains  2.19  and  1.04, 
In  Table  XLVIII  the  gains  of  the  seventh  grades  of  G  and  H 
average  91.5,  as  compared  with  an  average  gain  of  .88  by  the 
seventh  grades  that  do  not  emphasize  formal  grammar;  in 
Table  IL  the  gain  of  the  seventh  grade  of  G  is  1.02,  as  com- 
pared with  an  average  gain  by  the  others  of  .46.  But  this  latter 
comparison,  which  might  seem  to  substantiate  the  claims  of  a 


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[336 


formal  grammar  transfer,  is  not  by  itself  very  important  when 
one  notes  that  the  sixth  grade  of  G  in  the  same  table  shows  an 
initial  score  larger  by  .12  and  a  final  score  smaller  by  only  .13 
than  those  of  the  seventh  grade. 


TABLE  XLVIII 


School 


VII 
VII 

VI 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIA 
VIIB 
VII 

VI 
VII 

VI 


Test  37       Test  38 


1. 00 
1.67 
I. II 
1. 00 
1.29 
1.36 
1.43 
1.29 


2.42 

i'85 
1. 14 

2.54 
3-55 
2.99 
1.88 


Gain 


1-43 

.74 
.14 

1-25 

2.19 

1.56 

.59 


Test  38 
1.46 
2.88 
1.56 


1.23 
2.83 


Test  37 

1-45 
2.60 
1.94 


1.50 
2.47 


Gain 

— .01 

—  .28 

.38 


■  27 
-.36 


School 
VII 
VII 

VI 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIA 
VIIB 
VII 

VI 
VII 

VI 


TABLE  IL 
Test  39       Test  40  Gain 


2.03 

2.53 
2.19 
1.72 
2.13 
2.72 
2.59 


•  34 

1. 00 
1. 14 

•  42 
1.04 
1.02 

•  77 


Test  40 
1. 81 
2.20 
2.07 


Test  39 
1.32 
1-55 
1.57 


Gain 

—■49 
-.65 
—.50 


Taken  all  in  all,  the  evidence  shows  again  what  might  be  a 
chance  distribution,  though  somewhat  unfavorable  to  transfer. 
This  harmonizes  with  the  general  results  at  the  Horace  Mann 
School,  where  Table  XXII  showed  evidence  against  transfer 
and  Table  XXIII  evidence  for  it. 


337] 


Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 


87 


Group  IX.     Ability  to  detect  catches. 

A  glance  at  Table  L  shows  an  advantage  of  two  comparisons 
to  one  for  formal  grammar.  School  A  gains  more  than  B  (.92 
to  .26)  ;  C  loses  less  than  D  ( — .01  to  — .14)  ;  but  E  loses  while 
E  gains  ( — .31  to  .56).  Both  G  and  H  also  show  respectable 
gains.  A  closer  study,  however,  reveals  that  the  average  gain 
of  schools  A,  C,  and  E  is  .20,  while  that  of  B,  D,  and  F  is  .22, 
practically  the  same.  The  four  sixth  grades,  in  the  meantime, 
with  half  their  scores  superior  to  those  made  by  their  respective 
seventh  grades,  show  an  average  of  .75.  It  would  be  hard  to 
find  from  this  test  any  grain  of  evidence  that  favors  transfer 
from  formal  grammar.  This  conclusion  corroborates  that 
reached  at  the  Horace  Mann  School. 


School 


TABLE  L 


VII 

VI 
VII 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIB 

VIA 
VIIA 
VIIB 
VII 

VI 
VII 

VI 


Test  41       Test  42  Gain 


2.65 
2.83 
2.84 
2.10 
2.30 
2.59 
2.90 

2.n 


2.64 
2.70 

3- 10 

J.99 
3. IS 

3-51 
4.14 


Test  42 
2.10 
3-19 
2.01 


Test  41 

3-02 

3-45 
3-00 


Gai 


—.01 

-.14 
1. 00 
-■31 
.56 
.61 
1. 41 


TABLE  LI 


School 

A  VII 
B  VII 

VI 
C   VIIB 

VIA 
D  VIIB 

VIA 
E  VIIA 
F  VIIB 
G   VII 

VI 
H  VII 

VI 


Test  43     Test  44     Gain 


Test  44 
16.64 
15-45 
12.58 


14.92 
12.75 
14.58 
13-95 
16.76 
14-95 
14.00 
10.47 


16.52      1.60     {11%) 


15-05 
13-70 
15-94 
14.14 
14.71 
11.77 


•47 
— -25 
—.82 
—.81 

■71 
1-30 


(4%) 
(2%  loss) 
(5%  loss) 
(6%  loss) 
(5%) 
(12%) 


.92 
.26 
•  99 


2.56 
3-68 

Test  43 
17.41 
18.35 
16.62 


2.82 
3-29 


.26 
—•39 


Gain 

.77  (5%) 
2.90  (19%) 
4.04   (32%) 


10.32 
IS-83 


13.81      3-49  (34%) 
14.88    —.95     (6%  loss) 


88  Teachers  College  Record  [338 


TABLE  LII 

School 

Test  45 

Test  46     Gain 

Test  46 

Test  45 

Gain 

A  VII 

7.41 

9.02 

1. 61    {22%) 

B  VII 

10.45 

13.40 

2.95    (28%) 

VI 

7-74 

9.17 

1.43    {19J0) 

C   VIIB 

8.19 

9.76        1.57 

{19%) 

VIA 

6.04 

D  VIIB 

6.84 

741        -57 

(9%) 

VIA 

6.17 

4-79  —1-38 

(22%) 

E  VIIA 

8.55 

6.59  —1.96 

{2370  loss) 

F  VIIB 

10.50 

6.93  —3.57 

(34%  loss) 

G  VII 

7.37 

10.30      2.93 

(iP%) 

VI 

4-97 

6.56      1.59 

(32%) 

H  VII 

5.21 

3.38- 

-1-83  {35%  loss) 

VI 

8.1 1 

7.91 

—.20      (2%   loss) 

Group  X.  Ability  to  make  prompt  and  accurate  associations 
and  to  follow  directions. 

As  in  the  report  of  the  tests  at  the  Horace  Mann  School  the 
results  of  numbers  43-46,  as  presented  in  Tables  LI  and  LII,  will 
in  some  degree  indicate  what  improvement  may  result  from 
chance  variation,  normal  growth,  and  practice  due  to  taking 
tests.  No  one,  so  far  as  is  known,  claims  that  improvement 
in  the  ability  to  make  prompt  and  accurate  associations  is  in  any 
way  affected  by  training  in  formal  grammar.  In  Table  LI  the 
change  in  score  ranges  from  a  loss  of  6  per  cent  to  a  gain  of  34 
per  cent ;  in  Table  LII  the  range  in  per  cents  is  from  —  35  to 
+  39.  All  the  tests  in  this  group  have  been  standardized  for 
adults ;  consequently  the  cause  of  every  variation  in  score  should 
be  sought  outside  the  tests  themselves. 

The  results  of  tests  number  47,  48,  and  49,  which  were  given 
first  in  the  original  series  at  each  school,  will  be  found  in  Table 
LIII.  They  will  serve  in  some  degree  to  show  the  general 
abilities  of  each  school  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  other 
school  paired  with  it,  and  also  to  indicate  what  improvement 
may  be  due  to  practice  in  taking  tests.  For  the  first  purpose  the 
totals  are  given  of  the  three  scores  taken  together.  These  seem 
to  show  that  B  is  better  in  the  ability  to  follow  directions  than 
A,  D  than  C,  F  than  E,  and  G  than  H.  The  sixth  grade  of 
schools  C  and  H  also  seem  better  than  their  corresponding 
seventh  grades. 


339] 


Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipli 


In  school  G  these  tests  were  given  in  April  as  well  as  in 
September.  The  per  cents  of  gain  are:  for  the  seventh  grade, 
2y,  19,  and  18;  for  the  sixth  grade,  25,  12,  and  27.  Thus  again 
we  have  a  record  of  improvement  resulting  from  chance  varia- 
tion, normal  growth,  and  practice  due  to  taking  tests. 

As  test  48  immediately  followed  test  47,  which  was  given 
first  in  the  original  series  at  each  school,  the  superiority  of  its 
score  indicates,  outside  of  chance  variation,  improvement  due 
wholly  to  becoming  accustomed  to  tests  of  this  kind.  The 
changes  are  indicated  in  the  third  column  of  Table  LIII.  They 
range  in  the  first  series  from  7  to  34  per  cent,  the  median  and 
the  average  both  being  20.  The  tests  were  given  the  second 
time  in  school  G  after  the  regular  second  series  had  been 
finished  and  the  children  were,  therefore,  pretty  well  accustomed 
to  tests.  The  gains  of  12  per  cent  in  the  seventh  grade  and  zero 
per  cent  in  the  sixth  must  represent,  outside  of  chance  variation, 
the  "  warming  up  effect." 


TABLE  LIII 

{Change  in 

School 

Test  47 

Test  48 

percent) 

Test  49 

Total 

A 

VII 

9.72 

10.64 

9% 

10.09 

30.45 

B 

VII 

9-55 

IO.S5 

10% 

12.05 

32.15 

VI 

7.58 

9-75 

27% 

9.36 

26.69 

C 

VIIB 

8.20 

10.  S3 

28% 

7.78 

26.51 

VIA 

8.42 

11.25 

34% 

10.08 

29-75 

D 

VIIB 

9.16 

10.58 

16% 

12.32 

32.06 

VIA 

8.38 

11.00 

31% 

9.81 

29.19 

E 

VIIA 

9.14 

II.  19 

22% 

9.90 

30.23 

F 

VIIB 

9.09 

II. 41 

26% 

11.00 

31.50 

G 

VII 

a.  9-90 

a.ii.90 

20% 

a.12.46 

a.34.26 

b.12.54 

b.14.04 

12% 

b.14.65 

b.41.23 

VI 

a.io.oo 

a.ii.19 

12% 

a.10.23 

a.31.42 

b.12.50 

b.i2.so 

0% 

b.13.00 

b.38.00 

H 

VII 

8.68 

9.26 

7% 

9.00 

26.94 

VI 

10.50 

12.18 

16% 

5.94 

28.62 

Group  XL    Ability  to  correct  language  errors  and  to  point  off 

sentences. 

If  we  assume,  as  there  is  no  apparent  reason  for  not  doing, 

that  the  children  in  the  schools  emphasizing  formal  grammar 

have  had  as  good  language  training  previous  to  entering  the 


90 


Teachers  College  Record 


[340 


seventh  grade  as  those  in  the  other  schools,  it  would  follow  that 
any  inferiority  in  their  scores  in  the  tests  of  this  group  is  prob- 
ably due  to  their  failure  to  receive  adequate  training  in  such 
details  as  are  tested.  Such  inferiority  is  found.  (See  Table 
LIV)  In  ten  out  of  eleven  comparisons  the  schools  that 
emphasize  formal  grammar  make  a  poorer  showing  than  the 
schools  that  do  not.  Thus  it  would  seem  that  the  common 
schools  emphasizing  language  and  composition  have  at  least  an 
immediate  practical  advantage.  In  the  Horace  Mann  School,  it 
will  be  recalled,  the  advantage  lay  with  the  room  having  formal 
grammar  in  six  out  of  nine  comparisons ;  but  the  overwhelming 
advantage  in  the  western  schools  following  instruction  in 
language  and  composition  makes  it  probable  that  their  evidence 
is  more  conclusive.  This  is  more  readily  accepted  when  one 
compares  the  advantage  of  the  one  Horace  Mann  grade  over 


TABLE  LIV 

School 

Test  50 

Test  51 

Test  52 

Test  53  T 

A    VII 

.08 

—4.27 

3.36 

6.64 

B     VII 

.22 

—1.70 

4.21 

10.70 

VI 

.06 

—4-34 

1.60 

10.14 

C     VIIB 

.12 

—3-12 

1-52 

4.41 

VIA 

.08 

—4.00 

D     VIIB 

.004 

—1.42 

1-74 

8.58 

VIA 

•  03 

—3-57 

1.52 

4.62 

E     VIIA 

.03 

-3.06 

— .12 

8.65 

F     VIIB 

.10 

-2.67 

3-43 

Defective 

G     VII 

.19 

-2.96 

1.92 

15-27 

VI 

.15 

—2.81 

1.50 

1. 00 

H    VII 

.19 

—1.26 

.06  Unattempted 

VI 

.19 

-.65 

4.3s 

10.00 

TABLE  LV 

Showing, 

,  for  comparison,  the  amount  of  gain 

in  each  Ian 

Horace  Mann  School 

50a      50b 

31a      51b 

52a      52b 

Following  formal  gram- 

mar    . . . 

.05       .01 

1. 16      .24 

Following   language    . . . 

.11       .1] 

Other  schools,  average 

Following 

formal  gram- 

mar 

Following 

language    . . . 

.03 

1-55 

I-5I 

Test  53^11. 


1.27 


53a      53b 


•  31 


4.12 


34i] 


Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline 


91 


the  other  in  each  of  these  tests  with  the  much  larger  averages 
in  the  other  schools.  (See  Table  LV)  The  advantage  seems 
conclusively  with  the  schools  not  emphasizing  formal  grammar. 

Group  XII. 

Table  LVI  presents  results  which  at  first  sight  would  seem 
to  weaken  every  conclusion  in  Part  IV.  In  two  cases  out  of 
three  the  school  emphasizing  formal  grammar  is  a  poor  second 
in  the  grammar  examination,  and  in  the  third  it  shows  only  a 
trifling  superiority  over  a  group  of  children  six  months  younger. 
In  school  G,  where  formal  grammar  is  unusually  well  taught, 
six  months  of  the  subject,  treated  along  with  composition,  shows 
by  this  test  only  a  trace  (1.66). 


TABLE  LVI 

School 

Test  54 

A       VII 

5.57 

B       VII 

12 

70 

VI 

6 

97 

C       VIIB 

6 

54 

VIA 

D       VIIB 

17 

89 

VIA 

8 

57 

E      VIIA 

5 

77 

F       VIIB 

5 

00 

G       VII 

I 

66 

VI 

H       VII 

Unatt. 

VI 

Unj 

itt. 

The  situation  in  the  experiment  is  not  so  bad,  however,  as  it 
seems.  Formal  grammar  aims  not  at  subject-matter  but  at 
method.  "  It  is  the  work  of  making  the  definition,"  says 
Leonard,^  "  that  is  chiefly  of  value,  rather  than  the  definition 
itself  after  it  has  been  made."  This  method,  the  result  of  the 
attempt  to  teach  abstract  logic,  is  not  measured  by  test  54.  Only 
results  are  asked  for,  results  such  as  are  usually  sought  in  the 
grammar  class.  Of  these  no  school  has  apparently  taught  very 
much.  When  one  realizes  that  all  a  child  had  to  do  to  score  10 
was  to  discover  the  word  connecting  the  two  members  of   a 

'  Grammar  and  Its  Reasons,  p.  335. 


92  Teachers  College  Record  [342 

compound  sentence,  he  will  realize  how  small  the  scores  are. 
Only  two  schools  average  more  than  10,  and  no  school  averages 
as  much  as  20.  What  we  are  forced  to  conclude  from  test  54 
is  that  such  matters  as  are  asked  for  in  the  test,  though  pre- 
scribed by  text-books,  are  not  really  taught  in  the  first  two-thirds 
of  the  seventh  year,  in  either  these  schools  that  do  or  these  that 
do  not  emphasize  formal  grammar.  The  only  evidence  we  have, 
then,  that  formal  grammar  has  received  emphasis  is  the  testimony 
of  tradition,  of  those  in  authority,  and  of  the  text-books  used. 


SUMMARY* 


Although  the  tests  used  in  this  experiment  pretend  to  be  no 
more  than  rough  measures  of  the  abilities  in  question,  it  is 
believed  that  they  have  secured  results  more  trustworthy  than 
the  judgments  of  those  who  have  merely  philosophized  about  the 
matter.  Of  the  results  reported  in  Part  III,  this  is  asserted  with 
some  degree  of  confidence,  a  confidence  that  is  greatly  strength- 
ened by  the  amount  of  corroboration  reported  in  Part  IV. 

As  a  result  of  this  experiment  it  m.ay  safely  be  asserted  that 
these  particular  children  after  the  amount  of  formal  grammar 
that  they  had,  do  not,  as  measured  by  the  means  employed,  show 
in  any  of  the  abilities  tested  improvement  that  may  be  attributed 
to  their  training  in  formal  grammar.  To  this  statement  there  is 
a  possible  exception  in  the  tests  of  Group  I. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  some  other  children  with  more  extended 
and  better  teaching  of  formal  grammar  may  not  show  in  these 
abilities  a  superiority  to  other  similar  children  without  this 
subject;  but  certainly  it  is  a  matter  that  will  admit  of  less  con- 
fident assertion  than  before.  Indeed,  the  burden  of  proof  now 
rests  with  those  who  believe  in  a  strengthening  mental  discipline 
from  formal  grammar. 

*  All  the  data,  including  the  original  test  sheets,  reported  in  this  ex- 
periment are  on  file  at  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  and  under 
proper  conditions  may  be  inspected  by  any  one  interested. 

Tables  showing  the  unweighted  scores  of  every  pupil  taking  the  tests 
used  in  this  experiment  have  been  printed.  Copies  may  be  had  on  appli- 
cation to  the  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  College. 


343]  Formal  English  Grammar  as  a  Discipline  93 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Abelson  :    The  Seven  Liberal  Arts.     1906. 
Barbour:    The  Teaching  of  EngHsh  Grammar.     1901. 
Bonser:    The  Reasoning  Abilities  of  Children.     1910. 
••  Brown  :    Readjustments  in  Teaching  English  Grammar.    English  Journal, 
1913- 
Buck:    Make  Believe  Grammar.     School  Review,  XVII. 
Carpenter,  Baker  and  Scott:    The  Teaching  of  English.     1903. 
Chubb  :    The  Teaching  of  English.     1902. 
CoMENius :    Great  Didactic.     1632. 
Committee  of  Ten  :    Report.     1893. 

Committee  of  Fifteen  01^  Correlation  of  Studies  in  the  Elementary 
School:    Report.     1895. 
**Gowdy:    English  Grammar.     1901,  1909. 
*^  Hinsdale:    Teaching  the  Language-Arts.     1896. 

Holmes:    A  Grammarian's  Resurrection.     Leaflet  of  New  England  Asso- 
ciation of  Teachers  of  English,  1913. 
"^Hoyt:    The   Place  of   Grammar  in  the   Elementary   School    Curriculum. 

Teachers  College  Record,  1906. 
NJespersen  :    Modern  English  Grammar.    School  Review,  XVIII. 
\Laurie:    Language  and  Linguistic  Method.     1893. 
nLeonard:    Grammar  and  Its  Reasons.     1907. 
Locke:    Thoughts   Concerning  Education.      1692. 
Monroe:    A  Text-Book  in  the  History  of  Education.     1905. 
Mullinger:    Schools  of  Charles  the  Great. 

Ruediger:     The  Improvement  of  Mental  Functions  through  Ideals.    Edu- 
cational  Review,   XXXI. 
Sayce:    Grammar,  in  Encyclopedia  Brittanica.     nth   ed. 
^Sheffield:    Grammar  and  Thinking.     1912. 
"Thorndike:    The  Original  Nature  of  Man.     1913. 
-Whipple:    Alanual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.     1910. 
SWoodward:    Study  of  English  in  the  Schools.     1887. 
■♦Woodworth    and    Wells:     Association    Tests.      Psych.    Review    Mono- 
graphs, 1910. 


VITA 

Thomas  Henry  Briggs,  born  1877,  at  Raleigh.  North  CaroHna. 
Educated  at  the  Raleigh  Male  Academy,  Wake  Forest  College 
(A.  B.,  1896),  the  University  of  Chicago  (1898-1899,  1900- 
1901),  and  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  (1911-1913). 
Taught  English,  Latin,  and  Greek  in  the  Elizabeth  City,  North 
Carolina,  Academy  (1896-1898)  ;  and  English  in  the  John  B. 
Stetson  University  (1899-1900),  the  Princeton-Yale,  Chicago, 
Preparatory  School  (1900-1901),  the  Eastern  Illinois  State 
Normal  School  (1901-1911),  and  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University   (1912-1913). 


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